We spend so much of our lives working with other people! During one year, “eleven million meetings occur in the United States every day”, which makes for a lot of complex interaction (386). Unfortunately though, “Over 50 percent of this meeting time is wasted” (386). Some groups can come together and complete enormous tasks and make intelligent decisions, but they accomplish these things by working together in a positive and effective manner. Armour makes some suggestions on how we can make meetings more constructive. Some of the suggestions include but are not limited to: being prepared ahead of time, distributing an agenda, and starting and ending the meeting on time. As we look at small group communication we will focus in on problem solving, or task-oriented groups. To analyze group communication one must first look at the way a group typically functions, then more specifically, one must provide insight for how an individual group member can become more effective. Tubbs defines a small group as a, “collection of individuals who influence one another, derive some satisfaction from maintaining membership in the group, interact for some purpose, assume specialized roles, are dependent on one another, and communicate face to face” (387). This might seem like a lot of criteria, but a group does not have to use all six functions.
As soon as we are born, we are put into a primary group- our family. These groups are informal. Once a person belongs to a group their social identity forms and they continue to shape this identity as they extend their relationships to casual or social groups. Even if these relationships don’t last very long, the people influence our thoughts and ideas for years after. When people come together to teach or learn something about a given subject they are members of a learning or educational group. These types of groups can also include seminars or courses in which people interact in clusters. This type of group has also been called an, “enlightenment group” (Brilhart and Galanes). During our lives we will most likely be a part of a work group that includes us working with people to accomplish specific goals in a job setting. Members of these groups may have very little in common and they usually receive payment for their individual contributions. If you do not participate in this type of a group you will most likely lose your job, meaning the consequence is worse. Recently, the “employment world” developed this idea of the self-directed work team. This is defined as a group of individuals that must manage themselves and work with minimum supervision. These members, “handle job assignments, plan and schedule work, make production and/or service related decisions, and take action on problems” (Fisher). This seems to work well because those closest to the work know how to perform, employees want to feel like they own their jobs and are effective, and these groups feel empowered.
One of the most common complaints about small groups is that they take too much time and people rarely accomplish all that they should. In order to correct this problem, one must examine the behavior of each individual in the group. Dealing with conformity pressure is a huge part of working in a problem solving small group. An example of this would be the fact that if you were to ask a group of individuals a question, they would most likely all start answering the same way. Even if a person thought the answer wasn’t necessarily correct, they would still use it because the four or five people who answered before them chose that response. If you asked the question and then told the group members to disperse themselves in other rooms, they would most likely answer differently. This is such a problem because group members seldom get to establish their point against a mass decision. The example above looks at private acceptance and public compliance. These two ideas deal with whether, “people change their thinking as a result of hearing opinions different from their own or whether they say they agree with the group when in fact they disagree” (389). Private acceptance can happen when a person values the other members, their opinion is against him or her, the question begins as unclear, or when the group is under strain to reach their goal. This person that conforms is, “more submissive and dependent, high in need for social approval and low in need to be outstanding, more often female than male, and lacking in self confidence” (Hare).
When a person first joins a group, they tend to receive a lot of pressure to conform. This is because these new comers have not earned the right to go against the set norms. The most “closely-knit” a group is, they more likely they are to give off strong conformity pressures. What usually happens to a person that goes against the group norms? Well, at first this individual will get the group’s attention. Then, the group will try to persuade the individual to see it their way. If this person doesn’t come around, they become ignored or rejected. According to Festinger, we all yield to social pressure because, “human beings have a need to evaluate their own opinions and abilities and that when they cannot do so by objective nonsocial means, they compare them with those of other people”. For instance, you can compare yourself to other drives so that you know how good of a driver you are.
On the other hand, the risky shift phenomenon states that people are more likely to take risks when they are a part of a group. This is because not one member feels totally responsible for the decision. Also, people tend to be more persuasive in a group when they are arguing for something that is risky. Our western culture seems to value this behavior over conservative behavior. When working in a group, one might notice that the conclusion they come to might be riskier than the decision each individual would have concluded.
A very large part of being in a small group has to deal with this concept coined by Irving Janis called “groupthink”. As a part of groupthink we have to understand that the, “judgments of other people affect our attitudes, beliefs, and values as well as our perceptions” (392). The effect of these norms is not always negative. During groupthink ideas accepted by the group are not examined, and those ideas that oppose are concealed. You can see this happening in political and social contexts. This phenomenon is so powerful because people do not know when it is occurring, and people are afraid to say their own opinions because it will make them an outsider. Groupthink often causes, “us to use limited organizational resources in suboptimal ways” (393). Janis concurs that there are eight symptoms of groupthink: (1)members see themselves as not susceptible when it comes to risks, (2)warnings and negative feedback are rationalized, (3) members suppose that they are moral and can be excluded from ethical concerns, (4)leaders of other groups are considered terrible, (5)members who go away from the group are pressured to obey the rules, (6) members do not speak out when they oppose, (7) members believe that their choice is undisputed, (8) and finally, members screen the group from unpleasant information. In the end, the group doesn’t consider a “plan B”, fails to look at their decision, doesn’t gain all necessary information, and doesn’t see all sides of the issue.
Many times throughout our lives we are asked to brainstorm. This brainstorming allows us to be creative and think about a number of original ideas that could solve a dilemma. When this is asked of us, the more ideas we come up with, the better! When people come together after they have brainstormed they can play off each other’s ideas and come to a whole new conclusion. When people are sharing their ideas it is important that people do not “shoot them down” by saying things like, “that’s ridiculous,” or, “it’s impossible”. Instead, members should use terms that are positively reinforce the individual. An example of this would be, “We can do a lot with that idea”. Although it sounds cheesy, a creative group will yield the most ideas when they are considered happy. This is why humor is a thing to use in small groups. Humor alleviates stress and makes the group feel more energetic. Those people who believe in the power of brainstorming time and tasks will most likely be highly effective when it comes to generating new ideas. These people are not afraid to communicate their ideas and they have a higher tolerance for vagueness.
An imperative part of analyzing a team is realizing the role of each group member. Robert Bales of Harvard University developed a method that provides a framework that one can view the functions and patterns of communication. Each instance a group member interacts with another, their communication is assigned to one category, and after scoring, patterns of behavior become evident. The categories consist of (A) positive and mixed actions, (B) attempted answers, (C) questions, and (D) negative and mixed actions. Category A includes: seeming friendly, dramatizing, and agreeing. Category B includes: giving suggestions, giving opinions, and giving information. Category C includes: asking for information, asking for an opinion, and asking for a suggestion. Finally, category D includes: disagreeing, showing tension, and seeming unfriendly. Many groups need someone that challenges them. In terms of group task behaviors, Tubbs developed many roles that should be directed from each member towards accomplishing a goal. An individual that is initiating-contributing proposes new and exciting ways to deal with things. Perhaps this person could even rephrase the problem they are dealing with. An information seeking person makes sure that they ask questions so that they are clearly being told what is asked of them. Someone who is opinion seeking is not concerned with facts as much as they wish to know the reason behind the facts. On the other hand, an information giving person is constantly offering facts and data. Commonly, a group will have an elaborator that expands on the suggestions made by other members. The group coordinator will offer idea connecting suggestions, and they bring the group closer. A person who is orienting knows the positions of the group members and helps them stay on track. A group evaluator will compare the accomplishments of their group to those of another. Every group needs and energizer to help them when they do not feel like pulling forward. A member that is assisting on procedure will perform routine tasks for the group. And lastly, a group recorder will compile suggestions and outcomes.
Groups need to build their bond and maintain their roles in order to remain effective. To keep the group in proper functioning order, group members should be encouraging, work in harmony, and allow compromise. They should keep communication channels open, set standards, observe their group progression, and try to follow the group’s ideas. Each individual will also take on a role that more so benefits themselves than their group. Group members can sometimes be aggressive, they can block out information, and they can be recognition seeking. At some point, a group member may use the group to express their personal feelings. In many groups you will find the “jokester” and the person who wishes to dominate. One who is “help seeking” often expresses insecurity. And lastly, someone that is special-interest pleading will speak on the behalf of a predicament suppressing their own prejudices.
When group member problem solve together for a period of time they become emotionally dedicated. It is true that a cohesive group is in fact more effective. Cohesiveness is defined as, “the total field of forces acting on members to remain in the group” (Schachter). These groups contain members and are invested and they find joy in spending time together. Although this group is not always more productive because they can be “chatty” and more social, they tend to get through crisis situations, aid each other, and ask questions explicitly. These members might also feel more comfortable discussing a suggestion that doesn’t blend with the group’s proposal. For some people, working with others can be dull, exasperating, and very tiring. Feelings have a very important place in a problem solving group. These feelings should be carefully examined.
There are four imperative phases of group development. One’s understand of these phases allows them to measure the development of the group, make predictions about progress, and plan interventions to make the cluster more successful. Phase one is defined as “forming” which really beings prior to the group even meeting. During this stage, members will remove themselves from other things that could conflict with achieving their new goal, and they try to find out about each other. This can take anywhere from one day to many weeks, and the communication that takes place is usually guarded. During phase two, storming, individuals will begin to assert themselves and their place within the group. The language during this phase is direct, and things are not always as productive. People will question their leader, and ask themselves how emotionally committed they should be. During phase three, the group will develop norms and form a balance. This is the response to the storming phase and it doesn’t mean that all issues are resolved. The group becomes more closely knit and problem solving runs smoothly. During phase three, the group is most productive. At points during this phase, group members might make negative comments. Humor is also added to the mix. You may tend to see an overlap in behaviors for each phase.
Three variables add up to the structure of the group. These three variables are defined as group size, networks, and leadership. The group size will affect group effectiveness because you might notice that when working in a larger group, only a few people can contribute and not all ideas are expressed. Also, when groups get larger, smaller groups tend to form within the group. As groups expand beyond 20 the quality of their group progress decreases. Ideally, a group should have five members to remain successful. The group size and social pressure can affect the group interaction progression. Communication networks deal with the patterns of communication. Robert Townsend developed one model that includes three types of management organization. The best organization has a manger on top that delegates to two people on the same level at the bottom. The next has the manager on the top followed by people that go down in level below them. The weakest organization includes a manager that has an aide and two people right underneath. There are five types of communication networks: wheel, chain, Y, circle, and all-channel. In a wheel, one person becomes the leader and the source of comments from four others. For the chain network, “three people can communicate with those on either side of them, but the other two with only one other member of the group” (406). For a Y network, which resembles the chain, only three people can converse with that one person. During a circular function, one person can communicate with only two others. This circle arrangement may be “leaderless”. A group that uses the all channel network is allowed to communicate freely with each person- meaning all communication lines are open. The wheel usually yields the fasts performance, and the circle group is usually unsystematic. The circle function all accumulates a large number of errors in communication. The drawback of these networks is that a group really needs to look at its organization when solving a problem, and they should not just look at the problem in itself. If a group simply understands the procedure it must take to solve a problem, the network won’t matter as much. Centralized networks usually solve smaller problems while decentralized networks solve more complex issues. These decentralized networks have become more desirable for this reason.
Throughout the years, technology has taken shape everywhere around us! Technology improves group efficiency in immense ways. Groups can now communicate so many different ways. For instance, groups can now meet via video chat which makes “global groups” possible. People no longer have to sit next to one another to communicate. This can be troublesome though because members miss out on a lot of non verbal communication. This can also slow relationship building as conversations become fewer and fewer. For a flourishing online group to communicate it needs constant and available technical support, a way to know when the other members are logged on, and designed regulations for decision making. These online groups allow people to “be together”, without physically being in each other’s presence, which can be wonderful in this fast paced culture. People can interact whenever they find time throughout the day. Videoconferencing has allowed groups to meet together at a set time all across the globe. The availability of this technology has been widely increased. This sort of think makes group communication so exciting!
A lot of research has been put into shaping the characteristics of a great leader. Although a leader is usually bright and confident, there are no essential distinctive traits that they exhibit. New studies view leadership, “not as a quality, but as a series of functions that groups must have performed” (408). The leader will perform these functions and sometimes delegate them to others. Two major guidance actions include task functions and consideration functions. Task functions are duties that help the group successfully attain their goal. Consideration functions include tasks that improve the feelings of the members and group cohesiveness. These duties cannot usually be performed simultaneously, so many groups will ask for two leaders. It is still true today that leaders and not born, but are made. When we see someone emerging as a leader they usually have great ideas and a lot of concern for the group. This person will usually make sacrifices for the betterment of the group. An important characteristic of a wonderful leader is emotional intelligence. A leader should be self-aware, self-regulating, motivated, empathetic, and they should have great social skills.
At times, people can find that they are in group that is irritating, uninteresting, and lengthy. This may make them want to quit as they know that this will result in poor conclusions. Though, we must remember that there are certain things that must be done in a group, and for that reason we should try to work with people as well as possible. James Surowiecki believes that a group will perform well if they possess four elemental characteristics. A group must contain all different types of people and there should not be a definitive leader crowned. The group member’s thoughts should be put into one mutual answer, and each affiliate should access the group data. High performance teams get results, have shared purpose, and try to improve themselves, focus on the task at hand, and set high standards. The more training group members have, the more victorious they become. This experience is defined as social learning. In some horrible group situations, it is important to remember that we have the power only to change our characteristics.
For a small group to be effective problem solvers they should introduce applicable issues, inflate ideas, and document assertions. A group should also stick with a goal and accomplish it in an organized fashion. A couple of complaints made about small groups are that group members cannot seem to brainstorm, objectives are not set in stone, members don’t help each other, and conflict become prevalent. For many reasons, groups never even reach a conclusion because a discussion is not carried on long enough. Setting an agenda is a great way to make sure the group stays on task and looks at the problem in a different manner. Groups should ask themselves what the best solution really is, and what causes the problem. They should also question what an adequate solution could be and then analyze what needs to be done to accomplish that resolution. Brainstorming can be awesome when it comes to generating new ideas if a group follows a set of six rules. First, then group members should not judge each other, and second, people should let their minds “run wild” in order to produce results. Thirdly, a person should sit and think of as many ideas as he or she can. Fourthly, from these ideas, a person should combine and improve. Next, they should write down and keep record of all these ideas and evaluate them at a later time. Once many ideas are accumulated, a group should use them mathematically- multiply them, add them, divide them.
A new method commonly used in business and industry to create a positive discussion method is called nominal group technique. This method has six phases. During the first phase the group remains silent and writes ideas down on paper. Next, they list all these ideas so that they are visible to the entire group. Now the group will look over the ideas and discuss them. These ideas will receive a rating which leads to a vote. The last phase ranks the final ideas. The method helped teams make better decisions in the end. Most importantly, though, groups should first analyze a problem carefully before they ever attempt to solve it.
Some times conflict can benefit a group and push it to grow. You wouldn’t want someone to agree with you all the time- that becomes boring. Two types of conflict are constructive and destructive. This constructive conflict makes for intelligent discussion and is seen as intellectual. Destructive conflict has to do more with personal and emotional conflicts. When these types of conflicts arise, humor should be used to lighten the tension.
If we assume that a group will always make a decision, we can analyze the ways that they carry out the task. A consensus is, “an agreement among all members of a group concerning a given decision” (415). A high consensus group uses more than one method to problem solve, generates a variety of solutions, changes integration methods, and terminates “episodes”. On the other hand, low consensus groups rarely use more than one method of problem solving, repeat one type of integration, generate a minimal number of solutions that are made later, and introduce claims that are underdeveloped. If a majority vote is reached, that means that 51% of the group’s members agree. Unfortunately, some groups arrive at their decision by handclasping which happens when minority members within a group form a coalition to help each other achieve mutuality advantageous goals. When a few members force their opinion on the group it is defined as railroading. Usually the leader of a group will do this.
We can only know how well our group is performing if we have worked in a group before. Experience is key! Group leaders can evaluate their group using six criteria. Roles of the participants should be clarified, the right people should be in a leadership position, plans should be required, client feedback should be assessed, members should be invested, and finally, members should compensate.
There is still a lot to learn about group communication but it is important to remember that the more be place ourselves in group situations, the more we learn and grow. Perhaps someday, I will become a great leader, but it will take time!
Bibliography:
Tubbs, Stewart, & Moss, Sylvia (1974). Human Communication. New York, New York: McGraw-Hill .
