Intercultural Communication- Personal

Every summer, my family and I pack our bags and head down to Mexico. I know you may find this trite- but my idea of Mexico is far different then the “American Spring break” impression. I have traveled all over Mexico, and every time I fall more in love with the culture. Mexico is a low context culture, and I have seen this as the people tend to listen more and speak less. I adore everything that makes their culture unique- the language, the food, the art. Every part of their customs is fascinating. I have been lucky enough to experience the tight bonds they form in family and in friendships. Last year I played with a little girl on the sidewalk in downtown Cancun. Some travelers walked by and gave me a look as to say I should separate myself from the child. I treasured playing with this little girl because I felt like we were fundamentally the same- we just wanted to laugh and giggle. I have been able to learn their language in a more effective manor through interaction with the people. I remember it being difficult at first to distinguish the differences in non verbal communication. For instance, it is not uncommon to be hugged or kissed on the cheek when being greeted. I also enjoy the way that their people dress. Their style is very relaxed, and there is not an emphasis on labels or money. Learning about what makes their culture diverse from my own is what permitted me to see it as stunning. I am a highly anxious person and whenever I go to Mexico, I feel at ease. In America we have a tendency to only relax if we feel we deserve to take the time. For example, I only feel that I can take a nap if I have finished all my homework. When I go down there, it is considered wonderful to lie on the beach and read a novel or a magazine. I have a great amount of respect for the people though, because they balance this peace with hard work. The people understand that American travelers contribute a great deal of money to their economy, and they go out of their way to be friendly. This is an illustration of the many ways that we are interdependent. Do I even need to talk about the food?! It is wonderful- absolutely delicious. I cannot imagine a diet without Mexican food. What is most interesting is that America has taken this unique food and made it its own. I have been told that Mexican food is supposed to be simple and fresh. In America, it is deep fried and filled with spices. My diet is filled with the food of other cultures. I cannot imagine a life without Mexican, Indian, or Italian food. We are so fortunate that we can experience culture through our taste buds.
I believe the classroom can only teach you so much. It is important to travel and immerse yourself in a culture so that you become a citizen of the world. Every time I travel, I try to submerge myself in a places culture so that I can let it influence me. I cannot wait to study abroad. I have always wanted to go to Germany, Ireland, and France. Learning about intercultural communication is so exciting to me because we have this opportunity to break down barriers. Perhaps more importantly though, we have the opportunity to establish these beautiful differences, that contribute to our knowledge of the world. I will fly down to Mexico until I can no longer get out of bed. Maybe I will even live there!

Intercultural Communication- Applied

As I read about stereotyping in intercultural communication, I couldn’t help but wonder what role genetics play in our ethnic diversity. Further research into this topic lead me to an article in the New York Times entitled, “In DNA Era, New Worries About Prejudice.” In the year 2000, scientists decoded the human genome. The conclusions of this study showed that humans are remarkably similar. In fact, “the DNA of any two people… is at least 99 percent identical (Harmon).” The only thing left to be explained was the remaining one percent of difference. New research has proven that people of different ethnicities have dissimilar DNA. The small changes in DNA, “account for the pale skin of Europeans, the tendency of Asians to sweat less and West Africans’ resistance of certain diseases (Harmon).” People can take tests that will tell them what percent of their genes are from Asia, Europe, Africa, and the Americas. This new biological research is quite fascinating, but some social scientists believe it could contribute to even more ethnic stereotypes. Everything that scientists have revealed goes against the idea that we are all essentially equal. The problem is that these discoveries can be vast and expansive- we may find even larger differences between ethnic groups. An example of this would be linking I.Q. and DNA. Tiny bits of the differing genetic code have yet to be linked to behavioral or physical traits. On the other hand, this research can be used to map the spread of a disease as it has evolved across different continents. Many of the scientists who conduct this research are scared to talk about it openly because they fear they will lose support. In the Tubs and Moss book, it is imperative that people feel that we can speak of our differences as to better understand one another. Dr. David Altshuler, director of the Program in Medical and Population Genetics at the Broad Institute in Cambridge, Mass. asserts that, “it is so clear that the economic and social and educational differences have so much more influence than genes,” in America. This research is so troublesome because desirable and undesirable traits can be identified. This makes me wonder- is it best that we are sometimes left in the dark? Many wonder whether or not society is prepared to handle the knowledge of these differences. Some people believe that these findings will allow them to better address the different ethnic groups politically. Many sociologists and anthropologists have argued the fact that, “race… is a social intervention historically used to justify prejudice and persecution (Harmon).” I find this article to fascinating because it states that we walk a fine line in scientific research. I have been taught to believe that we are all alike no matter our skin color- these findings could destroy that idea. I worry that people will not be able to handle this information as they are to strongly ethnocentric. I believe that these findings will increase the knowledge of our differences, but we must also remember to stay peaceful, understanding, ethical, and unconditionally accepting.
Bibliography:
Harmon, Amy. "In DNA Era, New Worries About Prejudice ." The New York Times
11 Nov. 2007: n. pag. Web. 6 Dec. 2009.
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Intercultural Communication- Defintional

Intercultural communication is defined as communication involving members of different cultures. These can be cultures defined in terms of racial, ethnic, or socioeconomic differences. The differences between groups are not always recognized. A culture is, “a way of life developed and shared by a group of people and passed down from generation to generation (312).” A culture is a make-up of a variety of special components- religious and political systems, customs, language, clothing, tools, art, etc. It is important to remember that not all members of a culture will share these special components. Cultures also transform and flourish over time. Culture is learned and not innate. This is why a person’s culture may change as he or she experiences the world around them. Knowing a culture and its values allows us to predict individual behavior with more ease. As people enter our culture, we tend to feel vulnerable because they question what we accept as true. Vast differences in culture usually form when people have had little to no contact with citizens from other ways of life. Differences among cultures happen are found gradually over a range of space.
There are three major approached when it comes to studying culture. The first is a Social Science approach. This approach is traditional and is built on the methods used in psychology and sociology. It states that, “behavior can be observed, measured, and predicted (314).” Our communication is seen as being influenced by our culture, and a lot of work goes into comparing cultures. The second is an Interpretive Approach. Its methods are from the studies of anthropology and linguistics. There is emphasis placed on the experience of the individual, and the research is qualitative. To perform research, people use field studies and personal observation. The goal is to understand the behavior- not to predict the actions. The last is the Critical approach. This approach is concerned with creating change. To do this, it examines the power relationships in each culture. Contexts include social, political, economic, and historical. This approach all focuses on social relations rather than individual. The approach utilizes texts and cultural products to produce change.
The mass migration of people, whether voluntary or involuntary, has created a century of displacement. Diaspora is a Greek term meaning scattering, though many dictionaries define is as a, “dispersal of people from their homeland (315).” There are four elements of this unique term. One is that the scattering of people usually includes at least two destinations. The people have a relationship to an actual or imagined homeland. The third element is that the people posses a self awareness of their distinctiveness. The last element is that this Diaspora must occur over at least two generations. Scholars study these movements because they are concerned with the, “way diasporic populations form bonds and maintain a sense of identity and community around the world (316).” Mass migration and the development of electronic media have influenced the way we view this movement.
Throughout the recent years there has been a gigantic increase in intercultural communication. For instance, one-third of New York City’s population is made from immigrants. The constant uses of technological innovations have brought together new and old cultures. People sometimes belong to a culture within a larger culture. This concept is defined as a co-culture. This means that we can associate ourselves with a large culture and a smaller culture at the same time.
There are several ways in which cultures vary. Cultures have differing ideas on individualism and collectivism. Individualism is, “the tendency of people in a given culture to value ‘individual identity over group identity, individual rights over group rights, and individual achievements over group concerns’ (Ting-Toomey and Chung).” On the other hand, collectivism is the tendency of the culture to value the group over the individual. In an individualist culture, emphasis is place on individual goals and they tend to communicate directly. Also within this culture there are many smaller groups (family, church, etc.) that have a small influence over behavior. In a collectivist culture the people avoid direct contact and they are concerned with the desires of the whole group. Example individualist cultures include the United States and France, whereas example collectivistic cultures include Mexico and Japan. High and low context cultures differ in the way that their information is coded. High context cultures are better at understanding non verbal behaviors and they assume other cultures will be able to do the same thing with ease. A high context culture speaks less and listens more. Examples of high context cultures would be China and Japan. A low context culture, “stresses direct and explicit communication (320).” They look closely at verbal messages. Some low context cultures include the United States and Canada. It is important that we see that not all members of an individualist society are individualists and so on and so forth. Power distances deals with the degree people of a culture accept authority of hierarchy as a natural part of their customs. This means that they expect some other people to be in higher power. Power distance can be seen in some degree in every culture. There is a parallel with gender in some cultures. A masculine culture values things such as work, strength, competition, and assertiveness. A feminine culture values traits such as affection, nurturing, compassion, and interpersonal relationships. Uncertainty avoidance is a measure of the amount people of a certain culture attempt to avoid uncertainty or vagueness about others. High uncertainty avoidance cultures include Belgium, Greece, and Spain. These cultures include people who embrace a large amount of information- they prefer rules. Cultures that are low in uncertainty avoidance include Canada and the United States. These cultures are more open to change.
There are many different principles and problems in intercultural communication. Even though technology is growing, it cannot allow many people over hundreds of cultures to communicate. The communication between different cultures has created more misunderstanding. The communication process uses a shared code system. This system has two aspects- verbal and non verbal. Without a shared code system, communication becomes impossible. Our own beliefs and behaviors establish the basis for different assumptions. Two people from different cultures might both place a meaning on one single behavior. There is a level of knowing and acceptance in intercultural communication. There are two components- knowing and acceptance. It’s not so much what you know, but more so how you accept differences. If we refuse to consider other norms and judge a culture by our own, effective communication will not take place. Effective communication can only take place if we adopt, “a shared code system, acknowledge differences in beliefs and behaviors, and learn to be tolerant of the beliefs and behaviors of others (323).” Differences in languages can be so much deeper than translation vagueness. There are deeper meanings placed on individual words. Theses associations can be lost because they are rooted in the culture of the language. Even if you translate a sentence perfectly, you still cannot account for culture-based linguistic styles. Often when we talk to people in a different culture we overlook nonverbal messages. A nod doesn’t always mean yes. These non verbal indicators can be quite complex. Vocal cues can also be problematic. The expression of emotion also varies from culture to culture. A way that we use to understand each other is called synchrony. This is the sharing of rhythms. When people speak they develop a pattern of rhythm, and during a beat or stress, a speaker will reveal important information. This is hard to use when talking to a person from a different culture because these non verbal and speech patterns vary.
In a culture, norms are set in place so that people develop rules of what is to be expected from each individual. A culture develops and gives these rules. Understanding these norms helps us deal with conflict. To deal with conflict, cultures will integrate, or compromise, dominate, avoid, neglect, express emotion through facial expression, and seek third party help. People with a strong cultural identity usually integrate and comprise more than those with a weak ethnic idea. Two variables distinguish the way members of a culture view interpersonal and family conflict- expressivity and privacy and individualism. Many cultures place less value on individual self-disclosure. In some high context cultures, for example, the, “direct expression of conflict is also considered inappropriate (328).” In America, we place emphasis on autonomy and we ask friends for advice on our problems. The Americans, the Africans, and the Japanese stress cooperation, affiliation, and dependence in their cultures. Roles are sets of norms that are used in different groups. An instance of this would be the differing roles of men and women. Interracial marriages have been on the rise in recent years. Sometimes the similarities between these two cultures can form a basis of attraction. It is true that these two cultures may have different definitions of marital roles.
We find it difficult to except the behaviors and norms of a different culture when they are not the same as our own. Our values help us what we deem to be right, good, important, or beautiful. Two scholars proposed one single universal principle (protonorm) that underlies all systematic ethics. This is the sacredness of life. This basic idea relates to our three master norms or core values. These core values consist of respect for human dignity, truth telling, and nonviolence. As we consider how those of a different culture adapt to a new culture we must understand that some beliefs and values improve their ability to live in another country. Those cultures that focus on compassion for others have created a harmony in their new home.
In is imperative that we move toward a great intercultural understanding and tolerance. Even though our technological world is growing, divisions between people of differing cultures are growing at a faster rate. These differences can also be found within the same country. Ethnocentrism, “is the tendency to judge the values, customs, behaviors, or other aspects of another culture in terms of those that our own cultural group regards are desirable or idea (333).” We will be ethnocentric about our own country or religion and this is not always a negative thing- it can be seen as patriotic. Countries that seem to be strongly ethnocentric include Asia, Africa, and Latin America. In order to “remove the tinted lenses” or our own culture, we must acknowledge the fact that ethnocentrism is universal. Reading the international news helps us fight our skewed world views. We tend to form stereotypes of others quickly. If we do not communicate with the other cultures personally, we cannot dismiss stereotypes. Stereotypes guide what is called defensive projections which is seeing our own unwelcomed traits in other people. The mass media seems to contribute to the development of stereotypes significantly. Now, the media industry seems to put ethnically diverse men and women in leading roles. This attempts to naturalize the differences between different ethnicities. Video games have created a disturbing trend of racial stereotyping. In order to no succumb to stereotypes, we should view the media with critical and analytical motives. We usually act on information we believe is true- this is why creating biases is so dangerous. Unfortunately, these problems will not be going away any time soon. Our mental images of fear are based on ethnic stereotypes. After the September 11th attacks, Americans began to stereotype Arab Americans. These people became the targets of hate crimes even though we know little to none about Arab culture. We can improve person perception by, “awareness that our perceptions can be inaccurate and empathy, sensitivity, or responsiveness (339).” The internet seems to be used for group polarization. Group polarization is this idea that after people discuss ideas, they are likely to be pulled strongly towards one side of the spectrum. The internet can be a dangerous source for misinformation. Online hate groups can support violence against different groups. On the other hand, the internet has the power to bring so many people together.
So that the people of the world may communicate more effectively, we need to promote greater harmony and tolerance. Intergroup contact will be optimal if there is, “equal status between groups, authority support, shared goals, and intergroup cooperation (341).” If these groups stop competing with each other, we will see a decrease in prejudice. Thomas Pettigrew also asserts that we need to add in the factor of friendship. We should feel familiar and friendly. Studying intergroup relations will cut down prejudice and point out variables that increase social inclusion. For instance, many people want to talk about race but they do not know how. Variables include appreciating difference, engaging the self, critical self reflection, and alliance building. We must become a citizen of the world- a “cosmopolitan.” This makes us understand that we have a responsibility to every human and that we can learn from our differences.
Although travel has been made more affordable and easier, people still tend to stay in their own groups and subgroups. All those people who read the newspaper and magazines, and watch the television understand that the world has become larger. Student exchange programs allow people to live within a culture and adapt some of that culture’s norms. Our whole world is interdependent and is affected by political, economic, and social change. Because communications, banking, and manufacturing have become international, our economies all seem to be tied together. Some international organizations “help to increase productivity and raise standards of living by providing such services as literacy training, education in modern agricultural methods, and help in turning local craft production into profitable cottage industries (345).” Some of our intercultural exchange can lead to cultural homogenization. This is the inclination for one culture to become like another. Some aspects of one culture will eliminate weak aspects of another. Though, this idea is not always true. A culture can take an idea and put their spin on it. For example, the McDonald’s in India serves veggie burgers. Our awareness that we are different can actually help us communicate with others. Some people believe that viewing images of human suffering can make us drawn to change. Others though, believe that the more we view these images, the more we desensitize ourselves. We must have diversity within our community. In order to communicate effectively with those of different cultures, we must be committed, mindful, and unconditionally accepting. We must be concerned for ourselves and others, we must be understanding, ethical, and most importantly, we must be peaceful.
Bibliography:
Tubbs, Stewart, & Moss, Sylvia (1974). Human Communication. New York, New York: McGraw-Hill .

Mass Communication- Personal

Kids are Growing Up too Fast

Personally, I believe the media has a great deal of power over our thoughts and beliefs. I have babysat for four families in my neighborhood since the children were very young. I have watched all of them grow into different individuals. Two of the parents that I sat for did not allow their children to watch more than three hours of television per week. The other two, did not mind how much their children watched television, played video games, or surfed the web. At first, I found the parents who limited television to be uptight and naïve, as the children could simply go to their friend’s house and watch whatever they wanted. Over the years though, I began to see the effect of the media on the children who watch the small screen all the time. Two of the girls began to form an idea of this “perfect love.” They constantly asked me about boys, and wanted boyfriends of their own. They also seemed to dress more provocatively. I understood why this was happening because girls dressed rather risqué on the shows they were watching. Fascinatingly, they began to mirror the characters from their favorite television shows. If Miley Cirus was a singer, the little girl took singing lessons. It made me sad to see them trying to be someone they were not. The other girl and boy in the family that limited television were more active. They loved to rollerblade, bike ride, go for walks, and just sit around and chat. I loved being with them more because they were passionate about experiencing many things. They wanted to find things that made them happy. On television, girls rarely play boys sports. The media has had a lot to do with gender role shaping. Because the little girl had not had this idea impounded into her brain, she felt free to play baseball and flag football with her brother. The little boy who was allowed to play video games for hours and hours became somewhat aggressive and violent. He would walk around making shooting noises and hitting stuffed animals. At times I wanted to sit him and down and tell him that this violence would not solve problems. I know that sounds so cheesy, but it really did scare me to watch this boy believe that if he hit something, he would “make it to the next level.” The little girls who were allowed to watch the news rarely went to sleep easily. One of them would ask if they would get kidnapped, or if their house would get robbed. It upset me once again that these little girls were already starting to worry about the world’s troubles. The news is full of sickening and depressing stories, and it is not right to let young children watch these. I believe parents should try to keep their children sheltered for most of their youth. Kids need to know that the world is not perfect, but they certainly need to be able to enjoy their childhood and sleep at night. Over the years, I have gained a respect for parents to limit the role of media in their homes. Ideally, I know that it is impossible to shelter children from everything. I fear for the children that watch adolescent shows all the time, and focus on video games for hours and hours. I think that kids should get out into the world and make their own observations about what they like and do not like. After this time, they can select the media that reinforces their opinions and ideas. For now though, I wish children would fill their lives with the observation of nature.

Mass Communication- Applied

It seems mass communication can have a devastating and magical effect on the public. For my applied blog this week, I wanted to talk about a more serious event that was discussed by the mass media- Hurricane Katrina. The newspaper, radio and television stations alerted the public as they anticipated a massive storm. People were asked to leave their homes and travel north to land that would not be as affected. Some did this, as media outlets broadcasted pictures of highways strung with cars. Others did not wish to leave the home they had built for their families as it would entail leaving a life behind. This choice had horrible effects. For days, television stations sent correspondents down to New Orleans so that they could broadcast this storm in action. I cannot imagine being asked to walk into the eye of the storm, but then again, these newscasters did not have a house to lose. Pictures of the storm were quite terrifying, and I remember thinking that the people who would not leave their houses were quite overconfident. The media portrayed these “dwellers” to be weak and in need of huge amounts of help. Broadcasting of the SuperDome left me feeling sick to my stomach. These people did not have enough supplies and they looked unhealthy. People stood on top of their roofs waiting to be saved, and others let the water wash over them. The media framed their information to make the government seem at fault. People constantly questioned why FEMA was so slow to help the people of New Orleans. I still do not understand why it took so long for people to receive supplies. People had started to steal things from shops so that their family could survive. The city of New Orleans was unsafe, as there were not enough police officers to reprimand those who committed a crime. I became angry at all the people who were watching this in the media and not taking action. It was not making sense to me- the media was speaking out, but still the government was slow to action. I am sure gatekeepers focused on the tailoring of the images so that people were emotionally driven to help. What I saw in some of the days that followed amazed me. It seemed that the media focused their attention on the individuals who were donating their time and money to the cleanup effort. The story was no longer about loss, but about hope. Things were still horrible, but the media began to show these images of optimism. This had a magical effect because more and more people then wanted to be a part of the effort. Money for rebuilding was swimming in right and left, and neighbors began to lean on each other for strength. This whole catastrophe became an opportunity for the media to highlight the strength and perseverance of the American people. It was quite wonderful what the citizens could do without the massive help of the government. Today, the citizens of New Orleans have saved their wonderful city. There is still damage and rebuilding needs to be done. The media still runs stories about the devastating hurricane to remind the people of the United States that we are tough. People selectively chose to be reminded of the hope that we all encompass. Without this strong audience (Americans, and people all over the world), the people of New Orleans could have never stood again. It is the duty of the media to broadcast stories that ask people to lend a hand. If one steps in to aid in the restoration effort one is then sending the media feedback that have been informed and persuaded. I do like the way the United States has a news agenda that displays the bad but also focuses on the good. Just think of everyone that could be changed for the better.

Mass Communication- Definitional

Mass communication seems to be evolving constantly. Mass communication is unlike a personal encounter because it is mediated. There are three ways in which these mediated messages differ from personal messages. First of all, the sensory input prospective for the receivers is more restricted. Second, receivers are sometimes unable to offer their feedback. And lastly, receivers may not know the source from which the information came. Wright believes that in mass communication, “the audience is relatively large, heterogeneous, and anonymous to the source. The experience is public, rapid, and fleeting. The source works through a complex organization rather than in isolation, and the message may represent the efforts of many different people (503).”
In mass communication, the role of the audience is imperative, and it is important that one considers the size of the audience in a specific context. Because mass communication includes a massive audience, face-to-face communication does not take place. We have seen people steered into action as times of calamity, so we know that it is essential to get a point across to an audience. Though, in mass communication, the receivers of the message are widely unknown. These messages presented are, “intended for rapid consumption by great numbers of people (504).” Therefore, these messages are considered public and not private. When we hear a message through a mass communication effort, we must remember that it most likely have from a plethora of sources. Many individuals must compile their thoughts to construct an effective message. This effort includes a lot of time and funds. For instance, advertising companies spend millions of dollars to have a commercial air during the Super Bowl. The company also hires the people that are ideal for the job. And although this process can be costly, usually it pays off as its profits are, “equally spectacular (504).” In the United States we see advertising as a huge form of mass communication. Because we know these messages can be so effective, we must also reflect on the fact that ethics must be considered. To consider the effect of mass communication we must evaluate it next to different communication contexts. As we consider it, we must remember that in mass communication there is limited feedback.
Feedback is given in mass communication, it is just delayed. This feedback will also not be as complete as the feedback given in face to face communication. Also, we must consider the fact that mass communication weaves its message through a complex network of people. Sometimes the feedback that was specified to someone can end up reaching another person. Unfortunately, it is often impossible for one to respond to all the feedback that is given. An example of this would be a popular magazine. Thousands of people might contribute their thoughts, but only a few thoughts can be answered by the editor. On the other hand, technology is growing at such a rapid pace, and today more emails and faxes can be answered. In some ways, mass communication and face-to-face communication has a quantity of overlap.
As we think about the process of mass communication, we must consider the gatekeeper. A gatekeeper “is a person who, by selecting, changing, and/or rejecting messages, can influence the flow of information to a receiver or a group of receivers (508).” In thinking about this concept, we may remember its connecting to the construction of rumors. This gatekeeping exists in all mass media. In fact, in mass communication we will most likely find a network of gatekeepers. This procedure, “involves a selection process that has analogies with the selection process going on in all other contexts of communication- from interpersonal to organizational (509).” The gatekeeper must consider the economic impact of this message because mass media in the United States is concerned with profit making. The gatekeeper must also keep in mind legal restrictions that should be places on the message to make sure it does not get into the wrong hands or offend someone. Many people in the media have to gather and present information quickly, so deadlines become a cause of concern in accuracy and truth. A gatekeepers ethics will also tailor the message. In the media there is a great deal of dynamic competition so it is important for a gatekeeper to consider what looks best for their company. Gatekeepers must consider the importance of their message against all other messages. When understanding this, they must weigh the local and global interest of a situation. The gatekeeper must constantly look at the feedback he or she receivers in order to change or limit their message for the next time.
A lot of work with gatekeepers has been seen in war reporting. The problem with war reporting is usually access. Many journalists find ways that they can sneak past this dilemma. During the Vietnam War for instance, the link between the media and the military became tense. During the Gulf War, few media correspondents even knew what was going on. In recent years, the Pentagon created the concept of embedding which has changed the relationship between media and military operations. Embeds are journalists who are allowed to live and travel with the troops. In addition to these embeds, there are also journalists that are independent called unilateral. Embeds has access to the troops at all times, but were subject to censorship. These people often wrote dramatic stories that lacked all of the information necessary for one to understand the whole picture. Unilaterals have less contact with the troops, and little to no restrictions. Therefore, they see events in larger contexts and can attempt to travel anywhere, at any time they wish to witness a story. Unfortunately, these unilateral lack protection. Receivers of these war messages usually found that those constructed by the embeds where usually written in a more positive tone towards the military.
There are a lot of ethical considerations a gatekeeper makes in order to insure that the message doesn’t misrepresent a story. In the past years, different journalism stations have had to take risks and have their form declined ethically. The media can alter the way we see images. The media also has a tendency to not consider the privacy of an individual and they become intrusive. An example of this would be the night that Princess Diana dies in a car crash. Many reports say that she was being chased by a photojournalist. Sources in mass media must be credible so that we can gain a clearer understanding of a situation. In broader terms, gatekeepers must consider censorship, questions about federal power of broadcast licensing, and the duty of the mass media to the public. Because there are so many topics of information, gatekeepers must establish an agenda. In doing so, they do not tell us directly what to think, but rather they give us the information necessary to form our own thoughts. The information that they choose can have a huge impact on the public. It is important that they sometimes limit their information for private matters. In the end though, silence can be deadly. This kind of silence, not speaking up when horrible things are happening, is irresponsible. During times of war, the media must take all different kinds of patriotism into consideration. Some people do not believe it is right for the media to talk about the number of causalities in a war. Because media stations can show their own judgment of politics, broadcasting has adapted the Fairness Doctrine. This doctrine states that stations “devote a reasonable time to discussions or serious public issues and allow equal time for opposing views to be heard (Bagdikian and Rendall).” This is not always used by news stations, and the principles of censorship are still being well thought-out today. In constructing a story, media outlets must design the message to take into account everyone involved and distribute the profit and burdens of the point to those same people.
In earlier years, studies of mass communication showed that the message went directly to the sender from the receiver. According to this process (The Hypodermic Model), each audience affiliate receives messages straight from the starting place of a certain medium. If this information is powerful enough, it will influence the receiver. In some ways this is a miraculous thing, in other ways, this can have a perilous effect. As mass communication was researched more, people found that the media reinforced the preferences of voters in a campaign. Our major source of influence seems to be personal influence which is the pressure of other people. Put more simply, even in mass communication contexts, senders have to consider the viewer as being a part of a larger social setting. In some of these larger groups there is an opinion leader. This opinion leader is, “someone who, through day-to-day personal contacts and communication, influences someone else’s opinions and decisions (Wright).” These leaders influence decisions on all kinds of issues. Inside the different levels of society, you will find special opinion leaders. These people tend to be very well versed in their area of expertise, and therefore can contribute quite a bit of influence. This discovery leads to the development of the two-step flow model. This model says that information is first passed throughout the mass media, then in trickles down to opinion leaders. Then from these leaders, information is distributed to the populace.
As a part of the hypodermic model, an audience has to remain relatively passive and suck in all the information that is given off from the sender. Though, this does not always occur as the audience is now active. An audience can select the way in which it receives information. For example, some people watch the Today Show, and others prefer to read the New York Times. Because of this, you could say we have more control over the information that is being pushed at us. This goes along with the idea of selective exposure. If we choose to read a magazine that confirms our ideas, we are practicing selective exposure. As humans, we seek out places that will provide us with ideas, beliefs, and values like our own. More specifically though, what we take in from the various contexts is also selective, meaning we only hear what we want. This process includes the filtering of information. The receiving function in mass communication is very much like face-to-face communication as we tend to avoid using the work audience. Instead, we view the person who is processing the information to be a receiver also. There is also face-to-face communication used in developing a message because we have to remember that different opinion leaders and gatekeepers work together. Also, the feedback from the receiver can entail several steps.
The relationship between interpersonal and media technologies are being constantly questioned. Many people believe that the places we look for mass media information are very important in shaping our interpersonal communication. People also tend to, “make choices about what media they will use for particular reasons (521).” Many people believe that our search for information on the internet limits our social interaction. Researchers found this idea to be entirely untrue as families used their television for entertainment, and in turn used their computer for attaining information and communication. The internet is now being used widely as a source for credible information.
Closely tied to the concept of message flow is the study of the diffusion of information. The diffusion of information deals with, “how quickly news or information travels and the communication channels through which it spreads to a community or receivers (522).” This diffusion includes all kinds of information that is trickled down over time among members of a social system. After September 11th, the diffusion of information was rapid. Ninety percent of people hear about news through the mass media. The importance of the information will determine how rapidly it spreads. Sometimes we hear about information said in the mass media from others, and at times we hear about it in the presence of others. Once information is given off, its persuasiveness must be evaluated.
Because politicians know the great affect of the mass media on attitude influence they spend more and more each year during campaigns. Because these politicians are using new form of technology to get their information across, teenagers are becoming more and more involved. More Americans are also using the internet as their source for political information. Attitude influence has been studied over all the years of presidential debates. Millions of people tune in to watch these debates as they hope to have their attitude either reinforced or influenced. Those that did not watch the debate on television soon found out about it in the newspaper. These debates are crucial as they also influence those viewers who are impartial or undecided. Viewers tend to look closely at tone, posture, and hand movements in order to gain a greater understanding of the candidate’s personality. Interestingly, people tend to form their opinion about the debate after it occurs. The press’s interpretation of the debate is what usually influences society. Although this candidate packaging is sometimes seen as negative, it is imperative for us to form our views.
If one looks at the stories that run on the nightly news, or across the headlines of a news paper, then will begin to understand that the mass media has an agenda. This agenda is, “strictly a descriptive term for a prioritized list of items, the major topics found in newspapers, television programs, and other mass media messages (McCombs).” According to agenda setting theory, the press can tell us what to think by ranking the significance of certain issues. This influencing works as it is repeated day after day. You can also learn a lot by cues in asking yourself about the length of the article, the font size of a headline, and the page the article is presented on. We must be aware of this agenda setting so that our attitudes are not influenced as easily.
Another way that we are influenced by the media is framing. Framing is, “choosing a broad organizing theme for selecting, emphasizing, and linking the elements of a story (529).” Frames define the problems and are measured in terms of widespread cultural values. These frames also detect causes which identifies the force creating the dilemma. Frames also make moral judgments and suggest remedies. Frames can be seen as a way of telling a story from a certain point of view. The language we choose also has a huge amount to do with framing. This can be seen in politics when the society asks something like death penalty or execution? We should stay aware of terms like informed sources and right-winger.
In many ways, we learn new responses and behaviors simply by observing them. This process is defined as modeling. Movies, books, and television shows have significantly influenced the children and in some ways, adults, in our society. Children learn about jobs, material possessions, wealth and such through television dramas. It is interesting how men and women are portrayed differently through the media. In television for example, shows show married women who for the most part do not work. Because we know about this influence, the mass media has created the concept of role models. In movies women are sometimes to be portrayed as sex objects, and men are portrayed to not be as bright as women. This gender stereotyping seems to evolve over time. Children seem to be watching more television than ever. Children tend to remember news seen of the television more so than in the newspaper. All of this television has contributed to an increase in adolescent violence. George Gerbner studied the effect of television on our society. From his research he developed the cultivation theory which states that, “the greater amount of television you watch, the more your worldview comes to accord with the beliefs, values, and attitudes you see on the screen (535).” Through his project, he and other researchers have tried to monitor the amount of dramas children watch. Through constant watching of television we develop the mean world syndrome which leads us to believe that the world is not a kind place. Usually we believe that others are more influenced than we are- this is called the third person effect.
The National Institute of Mental Health believes that, “violence on television does lead to aggressive behavior… not all children become aggressive, but the correlations between violence and aggression are positive (536).” Apparently it exists in both boys and girls. Those who view violence fear being a victim, they decrease their sensitivity to it, and increase their want to be involved with violence. Children with violent tendencies choose to watch shows that support their thoughts. This is all very terrifying, but we must remember that mass media is a human creation and we cannot blame it on our problems.
Today, we tend to take technology for granted. This development will allow doctors to examine and diagnose patients from across the world. Narrowcasting refers, “to programming designed to target a specific segment of the media audience (538).” These new technologies affect how quickly a message reaches us. Virtual materials can now be sent all over the world- this is why we have an increasingly visual society. The volume of information has also greatly increased. Technology is thought of as a media extension. Technological advances show a trend towards this idea of convergence. Convergence is the merging, “or coming together of computing, telecommunications, and media in a digital environment (538).” For those that can afford it, their homes are filled with wireless fax, home shopping, and electronic newspapers. The distinctions between the various forms of media are becoming less and less and they are all coming together into one. This convergence will provide us who a more efficient world of journalism. Currently, 1.1 billion people use the internet. The computer is now used for a wide variety of interactive activities. This World Wide Web changes the way we read and write. Some scholars have even published their novels online. The average American spends 8.9 hours per week on the internet and many use the internet to be effective at work.
Another facet of the online world is the use of email. Studies have found that people’s favorite thing to do on the internet is read or write emails. This includes email, instant messages, and chat rooms. Email is essential in organizational communication. This can also affect the privacy of the message though. Email ethics seems to be forming every day. Now companies teleconference- they hole meetings with people in different locations. The telephone is used for audio conferencing. We see this happening on the news as different correspondents communicate with each other from different places in front of our eyes. Cell phones have become important devices in our world. Cell phones allow us to be engaged and they encourage us to use our time communicating with others who are not in our presence. The cell phone has changed the way we view people as available. In telecommunicating, “people work at different locations outside the main office, often at home, and are usually connected to a main office by computer and a high-speed modem (542).” All of this creates a more bendable work environment. We must also consider the fact that not everyone wants to work from home. Now there are thousands of video games offered throughout the world. These video games are often seen as controversial because they take up to much unnecessary time, and in many cases they are violent. Some believe that video games can actually increase our skills in different areas. These games can also deepen our problem solving skills.
The world has now created this new alternative media. Now we use blogs which is, “a website where information is updated and presented in reverse chronological order (543).” There are 12 million bloggers in the United States. Most of the information on blogs has been found to not be accurate. The mainstream media now uses blogs also. Media reform organizations have been formed to promote superior interactivity linking the press and the public. The Free Press and Accuracy in Media are examples of these types of organizations. Other news outlets are also emerging like small town radio stations that cater to their publics opinions.
All of these technologies have an effect on interpersonal communication. Now, there will be less face to face transactions, but we must also consider new technologies such as skype. These advances intensify a person’s selectivity. Many of these advances will advance communication as we can now communicate with others from across the world. Some communication that occurs online is not always reflective of us. Some studies have shown that those who use the internet at home express depression and isolation. Other research has found that the internet actually promotes social interaction as it allows us to stay connected with those we care about. There has been little research that has concluded that internet affects of social relationships. These changes in social networks are parallel with social changes. The internet should complement our social activities.
People are now concerned that technology is implementing a digital divide between people who can use, afford, and understand the information. Access to internet is limited to those who are well educated and in good economic standing. These divides seems to deal with race and economic social issues. It is our most sincere hope that this technology helps our world become a global human community. Borders have been taken down, and communication flows more freely. We can connect with other countries and promote change. Mass communication has the power to influence all of society. We must make ourselves aware of the ways in which the persuasion works. We must also work very hard to stay in touch with our global human community through advances in technology.
Bibliography:
Tubbs, Stewart, & Moss, Sylvia (1974). Human Communication. New York, New York: McGraw-Hill .

Small Group Communication- personal

I have never had more fun in a group then I did last Thursday. I thought back to all the times I had worked with others to accomplish a task, and none of them were as exciting. This perplexes me because after learning about group communication, I think it should be a dynamic experience. Working with people that come from different backgrounds and areas of expertise is probably the number one way people can broaden their horizons. Plus I figure, why would I do something alone when I can do it some much better in a group of people?
So what was my team asked to accomplish you might ask? We were given fifteen minutes to construct a contraption that would be able to keep an egg safe from breaking. This egg would be dropped off four flights of stairs. We were put in a group of four or five people. I absolutely loved my group! It helps when everyone in your team is kind and not afraid to utilize humor at 9:30 am. We were given a small amount of supplies- all of which we had to fight for. Unfortunately, I did not do so well grab the supplies and only ended up with construction paper, a box, and rubber bands. Immediately I felt like I let my team down, but instead, all the girls were encouraging and told me I did a good job. Right off the bat, Mallory informs us that she has done this before and the most successful way to keep the egg safe is to lessen its impact when it hits the ground. From there, we decide to fully trust here and create an “air balloon” looking contraption. You could say that this was group think, and it was, but in our case it worked. We figured that if she had seen it done before, we could trust her. Since everyone grabbed the bags, I had the idea that we could break down the fibers of the paper to make them softer- more like fabric for a parachute. Because of our time restraint, our members immediately began rubbing the paper against the desk to do this. Two other girls start to tape the papers together as we are running out of time. Our group is highly stressed, but we are assuring each other that the task will get accomplished. Many times a girl in the group said something that made us all laugh which made the environment so easy and comfortable! No ideas were being judged and I noticed that our class was having a blast. This made me really happy considering we tend to be a quieter bunch. We continued to work efficiently with shaking hands as our teacher counted down the moments. I was stressed, but in a way that made me productive. I think stress in a group is a great way to get the adrenaline going! We ended up finishing our odd contraption with a bit of doubt. Still though, we were really curious to see whether or not it would keep the egg safe. It ended up being successful. I was so excited after this. I felt like I made a difference in my team when I thought of that idea. It is so cool when you realize that you have something to “bring to the table”. Everyone in my group made the process so positive, and it made me examine communication in a different manner.
After dropping the eggs, we sat down as a class and discussed our experience. Three out of the four groups were victorious! That must mean that we work well together. We all analyzed the different ways that we accomplished our task. Every group was different. What was surprising about the discussion was that no one really noticed that they had a leader. Every group had a person that came up with the first idea, and the members decided to go from there. Many of the clusters experienced groupthink. What was amazing was that we never noticed it while it was happening. Next time I am in a group, hopefully I will consider more options and create a plan B. If our contraption wouldn’t have worked I don’t know what we would have done! In the end, the experience was a great one. Even something as tiny as that shapes the way we perform in a team. I hope to do something like that again in the near future!

Small Group Communication- Applied

I have to admit, I was stumped when it came time to write the applied blog for small group communication. I could not seem to think of a movie, book, or article I had ever read that really captured the complexity of small group communication. At first I thought of the movie “Dodgeball”- a funny film about a group of individuals who puts a team together to win a dodge ball tournament. But still, that didn’t seem like the ideal group of individuals I was searching for. Then, I had this brilliant idea- I could create the perfect team, give them a goal, let them brainstorm, and finally accomplish this task. I know it is impossible to have the “perfect” team because some conflict is constructive; however, I wanted to get close to enough to excellence.
So here is my team- it consists of three men, and three women. All the men and woman are between the age of 25-55, which comes in handy for the company who hired them. These men and women work for a dating website called “Match-Stick.com”. The website was created a couple of years ago by an older man called Andy, and it has been highly successful. Andy wants this holiday season to be full of love! Therefore, he wishes to meet a quota of matches by the end of New Years. Matches can only be successful if the couple reports to the website that they have made it past the first date. Andy has decided to higher this group of individuals to work together in a “work group” to create new questions and analyze past data. He also wants them to bring in their expertise on what is “attractive” at any age currently. All of the members have worked on teams many times before which will be the number one reason they are so effective.
Even before the group meets, they work though phase one of group development well. Each person detaches themselves from other obligations and learns about each member they will be working with. Based on John merits and background in this kind of matter, they decide to make him their leader. John will keep the group on track; he will be confident, and also supportive. He has been a leader many times before. Members call and email each other so that they know each person’s educational background and clue them in on what they can “bring to the table”. During phase two, storming, the group experiences constructive conflict. Amy, one of the girls does not agree with Dan’s idea because of some statistical evidence she knows. And Rachel asserts her educational background in gender studies from Harvard. The group does not get as much done during this phase, but still they are learning all about each other. During phase three, norming, the group will develop a wonderful balance. Each person starts to understand what they need to do to contribute the process. All members remain individuals, but the work and time they spend is a smoother process. During phase four, the group really starts performing! They brainstorm for hours and hours using the nominal group technique. The group is open to new ideas and instead of shooting other members down, they encourage them! Ideas are added, multiplied, divided, and subtracted. Questions are analyzed, tried, and researched. Every time a new question for the dating survey is developed, the group agrees on it fully- they form a consensus.
Meetings begin with a typed agenda written by John, the leader. The agenda states what the group accomplished during the last meeting and what they hope to accomplish next. For instance, during a certain day, half the group is asked to go out and walk the streets of New York City researching what “types” of people attract one another. The other half of the group is asked to analyze the data they have collected about what has worked for the site in the past. After a few weeks, the group has become close and tight knit. They enjoy each other’s company and they are highly invested in their work. Sometimes, they even stay later if they have not finished. They become highly cohesive. Humor is constantly used as a means to make the group less stressed as they are in constant pressure to meet a deadline. All channels and lines of communication are now open and the group has set high standards for themselves. Once in a while, the group experiences group think, but John tries to make sure all possible solutions are considered and all voices are heard. Their leader also tries to make each and every day fun because analyzing human beings is interesting and exciting. He thinks of new ways to brainstorm and sometimes he brings in media artifacts. When something doesn’t go as expected, the members still encourage each other. If problems arise, the group tries to “harmonize” and mediate their differences. All of the progress made by the group is kept in record and comprise is used all the time.
You may be sitting here thinking that this team is a “dream team”. It is not though, each and every person can change the way they function in a group. If every person changed their attitude and work ethics, possibly their team could be great. In today’s fast paced society people have a tendency to settle and create lower standards. But think of all the expertise that the world contains. There are so many people that could work together to solve enormous problems. This teams ends up creating a set of questions that allows people to pinpoint the exact person that would complement them. A graphic designer on the team worked with the website to make it look more romantic for the holidays. By the end of new years, 500 matches were made. This can happen! The group is excited beyond belief and this opportunity has shaped the way they work in a group.

Small Group Communication- Definitional

We spend so much of our lives working with other people! During one year, “eleven million meetings occur in the United States every day”, which makes for a lot of complex interaction (386). Unfortunately though, “Over 50 percent of this meeting time is wasted” (386). Some groups can come together and complete enormous tasks and make intelligent decisions, but they accomplish these things by working together in a positive and effective manner. Armour makes some suggestions on how we can make meetings more constructive. Some of the suggestions include but are not limited to: being prepared ahead of time, distributing an agenda, and starting and ending the meeting on time. As we look at small group communication we will focus in on problem solving, or task-oriented groups. To analyze group communication one must first look at the way a group typically functions, then more specifically, one must provide insight for how an individual group member can become more effective. Tubbs defines a small group as a, “collection of individuals who influence one another, derive some satisfaction from maintaining membership in the group, interact for some purpose, assume specialized roles, are dependent on one another, and communicate face to face” (387). This might seem like a lot of criteria, but a group does not have to use all six functions.
As soon as we are born, we are put into a primary group- our family. These groups are informal. Once a person belongs to a group their social identity forms and they continue to shape this identity as they extend their relationships to casual or social groups. Even if these relationships don’t last very long, the people influence our thoughts and ideas for years after. When people come together to teach or learn something about a given subject they are members of a learning or educational group. These types of groups can also include seminars or courses in which people interact in clusters. This type of group has also been called an, “enlightenment group” (Brilhart and Galanes). During our lives we will most likely be a part of a work group that includes us working with people to accomplish specific goals in a job setting. Members of these groups may have very little in common and they usually receive payment for their individual contributions. If you do not participate in this type of a group you will most likely lose your job, meaning the consequence is worse. Recently, the “employment world” developed this idea of the self-directed work team. This is defined as a group of individuals that must manage themselves and work with minimum supervision. These members, “handle job assignments, plan and schedule work, make production and/or service related decisions, and take action on problems” (Fisher). This seems to work well because those closest to the work know how to perform, employees want to feel like they own their jobs and are effective, and these groups feel empowered.
One of the most common complaints about small groups is that they take too much time and people rarely accomplish all that they should. In order to correct this problem, one must examine the behavior of each individual in the group. Dealing with conformity pressure is a huge part of working in a problem solving small group. An example of this would be the fact that if you were to ask a group of individuals a question, they would most likely all start answering the same way. Even if a person thought the answer wasn’t necessarily correct, they would still use it because the four or five people who answered before them chose that response. If you asked the question and then told the group members to disperse themselves in other rooms, they would most likely answer differently. This is such a problem because group members seldom get to establish their point against a mass decision. The example above looks at private acceptance and public compliance. These two ideas deal with whether, “people change their thinking as a result of hearing opinions different from their own or whether they say they agree with the group when in fact they disagree” (389). Private acceptance can happen when a person values the other members, their opinion is against him or her, the question begins as unclear, or when the group is under strain to reach their goal. This person that conforms is, “more submissive and dependent, high in need for social approval and low in need to be outstanding, more often female than male, and lacking in self confidence” (Hare).
When a person first joins a group, they tend to receive a lot of pressure to conform. This is because these new comers have not earned the right to go against the set norms. The most “closely-knit” a group is, they more likely they are to give off strong conformity pressures. What usually happens to a person that goes against the group norms? Well, at first this individual will get the group’s attention. Then, the group will try to persuade the individual to see it their way. If this person doesn’t come around, they become ignored or rejected. According to Festinger, we all yield to social pressure because, “human beings have a need to evaluate their own opinions and abilities and that when they cannot do so by objective nonsocial means, they compare them with those of other people”. For instance, you can compare yourself to other drives so that you know how good of a driver you are.
On the other hand, the risky shift phenomenon states that people are more likely to take risks when they are a part of a group. This is because not one member feels totally responsible for the decision. Also, people tend to be more persuasive in a group when they are arguing for something that is risky. Our western culture seems to value this behavior over conservative behavior. When working in a group, one might notice that the conclusion they come to might be riskier than the decision each individual would have concluded.
A very large part of being in a small group has to deal with this concept coined by Irving Janis called “groupthink”. As a part of groupthink we have to understand that the, “judgments of other people affect our attitudes, beliefs, and values as well as our perceptions” (392). The effect of these norms is not always negative. During groupthink ideas accepted by the group are not examined, and those ideas that oppose are concealed. You can see this happening in political and social contexts. This phenomenon is so powerful because people do not know when it is occurring, and people are afraid to say their own opinions because it will make them an outsider. Groupthink often causes, “us to use limited organizational resources in suboptimal ways” (393). Janis concurs that there are eight symptoms of groupthink: (1)members see themselves as not susceptible when it comes to risks, (2)warnings and negative feedback are rationalized, (3) members suppose that they are moral and can be excluded from ethical concerns, (4)leaders of other groups are considered terrible, (5)members who go away from the group are pressured to obey the rules, (6) members do not speak out when they oppose, (7) members believe that their choice is undisputed, (8) and finally, members screen the group from unpleasant information. In the end, the group doesn’t consider a “plan B”, fails to look at their decision, doesn’t gain all necessary information, and doesn’t see all sides of the issue.
Many times throughout our lives we are asked to brainstorm. This brainstorming allows us to be creative and think about a number of original ideas that could solve a dilemma. When this is asked of us, the more ideas we come up with, the better! When people come together after they have brainstormed they can play off each other’s ideas and come to a whole new conclusion. When people are sharing their ideas it is important that people do not “shoot them down” by saying things like, “that’s ridiculous,” or, “it’s impossible”. Instead, members should use terms that are positively reinforce the individual. An example of this would be, “We can do a lot with that idea”. Although it sounds cheesy, a creative group will yield the most ideas when they are considered happy. This is why humor is a thing to use in small groups. Humor alleviates stress and makes the group feel more energetic. Those people who believe in the power of brainstorming time and tasks will most likely be highly effective when it comes to generating new ideas. These people are not afraid to communicate their ideas and they have a higher tolerance for vagueness.
An imperative part of analyzing a team is realizing the role of each group member. Robert Bales of Harvard University developed a method that provides a framework that one can view the functions and patterns of communication. Each instance a group member interacts with another, their communication is assigned to one category, and after scoring, patterns of behavior become evident. The categories consist of (A) positive and mixed actions, (B) attempted answers, (C) questions, and (D) negative and mixed actions. Category A includes: seeming friendly, dramatizing, and agreeing. Category B includes: giving suggestions, giving opinions, and giving information. Category C includes: asking for information, asking for an opinion, and asking for a suggestion. Finally, category D includes: disagreeing, showing tension, and seeming unfriendly. Many groups need someone that challenges them. In terms of group task behaviors, Tubbs developed many roles that should be directed from each member towards accomplishing a goal. An individual that is initiating-contributing proposes new and exciting ways to deal with things. Perhaps this person could even rephrase the problem they are dealing with. An information seeking person makes sure that they ask questions so that they are clearly being told what is asked of them. Someone who is opinion seeking is not concerned with facts as much as they wish to know the reason behind the facts. On the other hand, an information giving person is constantly offering facts and data. Commonly, a group will have an elaborator that expands on the suggestions made by other members. The group coordinator will offer idea connecting suggestions, and they bring the group closer. A person who is orienting knows the positions of the group members and helps them stay on track. A group evaluator will compare the accomplishments of their group to those of another. Every group needs and energizer to help them when they do not feel like pulling forward. A member that is assisting on procedure will perform routine tasks for the group. And lastly, a group recorder will compile suggestions and outcomes.
Groups need to build their bond and maintain their roles in order to remain effective. To keep the group in proper functioning order, group members should be encouraging, work in harmony, and allow compromise. They should keep communication channels open, set standards, observe their group progression, and try to follow the group’s ideas. Each individual will also take on a role that more so benefits themselves than their group. Group members can sometimes be aggressive, they can block out information, and they can be recognition seeking. At some point, a group member may use the group to express their personal feelings. In many groups you will find the “jokester” and the person who wishes to dominate. One who is “help seeking” often expresses insecurity. And lastly, someone that is special-interest pleading will speak on the behalf of a predicament suppressing their own prejudices.
When group member problem solve together for a period of time they become emotionally dedicated. It is true that a cohesive group is in fact more effective. Cohesiveness is defined as, “the total field of forces acting on members to remain in the group” (Schachter). These groups contain members and are invested and they find joy in spending time together. Although this group is not always more productive because they can be “chatty” and more social, they tend to get through crisis situations, aid each other, and ask questions explicitly. These members might also feel more comfortable discussing a suggestion that doesn’t blend with the group’s proposal. For some people, working with others can be dull, exasperating, and very tiring. Feelings have a very important place in a problem solving group. These feelings should be carefully examined.
There are four imperative phases of group development. One’s understand of these phases allows them to measure the development of the group, make predictions about progress, and plan interventions to make the cluster more successful. Phase one is defined as “forming” which really beings prior to the group even meeting. During this stage, members will remove themselves from other things that could conflict with achieving their new goal, and they try to find out about each other. This can take anywhere from one day to many weeks, and the communication that takes place is usually guarded. During phase two, storming, individuals will begin to assert themselves and their place within the group. The language during this phase is direct, and things are not always as productive. People will question their leader, and ask themselves how emotionally committed they should be. During phase three, the group will develop norms and form a balance. This is the response to the storming phase and it doesn’t mean that all issues are resolved. The group becomes more closely knit and problem solving runs smoothly. During phase three, the group is most productive. At points during this phase, group members might make negative comments. Humor is also added to the mix. You may tend to see an overlap in behaviors for each phase.
Three variables add up to the structure of the group. These three variables are defined as group size, networks, and leadership. The group size will affect group effectiveness because you might notice that when working in a larger group, only a few people can contribute and not all ideas are expressed. Also, when groups get larger, smaller groups tend to form within the group. As groups expand beyond 20 the quality of their group progress decreases. Ideally, a group should have five members to remain successful. The group size and social pressure can affect the group interaction progression. Communication networks deal with the patterns of communication. Robert Townsend developed one model that includes three types of management organization. The best organization has a manger on top that delegates to two people on the same level at the bottom. The next has the manager on the top followed by people that go down in level below them. The weakest organization includes a manager that has an aide and two people right underneath. There are five types of communication networks: wheel, chain, Y, circle, and all-channel. In a wheel, one person becomes the leader and the source of comments from four others. For the chain network, “three people can communicate with those on either side of them, but the other two with only one other member of the group” (406). For a Y network, which resembles the chain, only three people can converse with that one person. During a circular function, one person can communicate with only two others. This circle arrangement may be “leaderless”. A group that uses the all channel network is allowed to communicate freely with each person- meaning all communication lines are open. The wheel usually yields the fasts performance, and the circle group is usually unsystematic. The circle function all accumulates a large number of errors in communication. The drawback of these networks is that a group really needs to look at its organization when solving a problem, and they should not just look at the problem in itself. If a group simply understands the procedure it must take to solve a problem, the network won’t matter as much. Centralized networks usually solve smaller problems while decentralized networks solve more complex issues. These decentralized networks have become more desirable for this reason.
Throughout the years, technology has taken shape everywhere around us! Technology improves group efficiency in immense ways. Groups can now communicate so many different ways. For instance, groups can now meet via video chat which makes “global groups” possible. People no longer have to sit next to one another to communicate. This can be troublesome though because members miss out on a lot of non verbal communication. This can also slow relationship building as conversations become fewer and fewer. For a flourishing online group to communicate it needs constant and available technical support, a way to know when the other members are logged on, and designed regulations for decision making. These online groups allow people to “be together”, without physically being in each other’s presence, which can be wonderful in this fast paced culture. People can interact whenever they find time throughout the day. Videoconferencing has allowed groups to meet together at a set time all across the globe. The availability of this technology has been widely increased. This sort of think makes group communication so exciting!
A lot of research has been put into shaping the characteristics of a great leader. Although a leader is usually bright and confident, there are no essential distinctive traits that they exhibit. New studies view leadership, “not as a quality, but as a series of functions that groups must have performed” (408). The leader will perform these functions and sometimes delegate them to others. Two major guidance actions include task functions and consideration functions. Task functions are duties that help the group successfully attain their goal. Consideration functions include tasks that improve the feelings of the members and group cohesiveness. These duties cannot usually be performed simultaneously, so many groups will ask for two leaders. It is still true today that leaders and not born, but are made. When we see someone emerging as a leader they usually have great ideas and a lot of concern for the group. This person will usually make sacrifices for the betterment of the group. An important characteristic of a wonderful leader is emotional intelligence. A leader should be self-aware, self-regulating, motivated, empathetic, and they should have great social skills.
At times, people can find that they are in group that is irritating, uninteresting, and lengthy. This may make them want to quit as they know that this will result in poor conclusions. Though, we must remember that there are certain things that must be done in a group, and for that reason we should try to work with people as well as possible. James Surowiecki believes that a group will perform well if they possess four elemental characteristics. A group must contain all different types of people and there should not be a definitive leader crowned. The group member’s thoughts should be put into one mutual answer, and each affiliate should access the group data. High performance teams get results, have shared purpose, and try to improve themselves, focus on the task at hand, and set high standards. The more training group members have, the more victorious they become. This experience is defined as social learning. In some horrible group situations, it is important to remember that we have the power only to change our characteristics.
For a small group to be effective problem solvers they should introduce applicable issues, inflate ideas, and document assertions. A group should also stick with a goal and accomplish it in an organized fashion. A couple of complaints made about small groups are that group members cannot seem to brainstorm, objectives are not set in stone, members don’t help each other, and conflict become prevalent. For many reasons, groups never even reach a conclusion because a discussion is not carried on long enough. Setting an agenda is a great way to make sure the group stays on task and looks at the problem in a different manner. Groups should ask themselves what the best solution really is, and what causes the problem. They should also question what an adequate solution could be and then analyze what needs to be done to accomplish that resolution. Brainstorming can be awesome when it comes to generating new ideas if a group follows a set of six rules. First, then group members should not judge each other, and second, people should let their minds “run wild” in order to produce results. Thirdly, a person should sit and think of as many ideas as he or she can. Fourthly, from these ideas, a person should combine and improve. Next, they should write down and keep record of all these ideas and evaluate them at a later time. Once many ideas are accumulated, a group should use them mathematically- multiply them, add them, divide them.
A new method commonly used in business and industry to create a positive discussion method is called nominal group technique. This method has six phases. During the first phase the group remains silent and writes ideas down on paper. Next, they list all these ideas so that they are visible to the entire group. Now the group will look over the ideas and discuss them. These ideas will receive a rating which leads to a vote. The last phase ranks the final ideas. The method helped teams make better decisions in the end. Most importantly, though, groups should first analyze a problem carefully before they ever attempt to solve it.
Some times conflict can benefit a group and push it to grow. You wouldn’t want someone to agree with you all the time- that becomes boring. Two types of conflict are constructive and destructive. This constructive conflict makes for intelligent discussion and is seen as intellectual. Destructive conflict has to do more with personal and emotional conflicts. When these types of conflicts arise, humor should be used to lighten the tension.
If we assume that a group will always make a decision, we can analyze the ways that they carry out the task. A consensus is, “an agreement among all members of a group concerning a given decision” (415). A high consensus group uses more than one method to problem solve, generates a variety of solutions, changes integration methods, and terminates “episodes”. On the other hand, low consensus groups rarely use more than one method of problem solving, repeat one type of integration, generate a minimal number of solutions that are made later, and introduce claims that are underdeveloped. If a majority vote is reached, that means that 51% of the group’s members agree. Unfortunately, some groups arrive at their decision by handclasping which happens when minority members within a group form a coalition to help each other achieve mutuality advantageous goals. When a few members force their opinion on the group it is defined as railroading. Usually the leader of a group will do this.
We can only know how well our group is performing if we have worked in a group before. Experience is key! Group leaders can evaluate their group using six criteria. Roles of the participants should be clarified, the right people should be in a leadership position, plans should be required, client feedback should be assessed, members should be invested, and finally, members should compensate.
There is still a lot to learn about group communication but it is important to remember that the more be place ourselves in group situations, the more we learn and grow. Perhaps someday, I will become a great leader, but it will take time!

Bibliography:
Tubbs, Stewart, & Moss, Sylvia (1974). Human Communication. New York, New York: McGraw-Hill .

Health Communication- Personal

Because many aspects of health communication are so serious, I decided that I would discuss a personal experience that was somewhat humorous compared to a mass disease. I would like to talk about by practice with the stages of change model, and my need to quit drinking diet soda! Let’s face it; many women throughout the world share this same problem. I know that this “fake sugar” cannot benefit my body, and to be honest, I was having around twenty diet sodas a day. During my pre-contemplation stage, I was soooo not ready to change. I was out at restaurants drinking this carcinogenic liquid like it was my job. I loved every kind of diet soda, and my mind could not fathom the idea of giving up all this caffeine. Then one day I thought about how much I depended on diet soda to get through the day- I know it’s quite sad. I really needed it! I never wanted to depend on something in my life, so I began to contemplate changing. In preparation I thought about all the ways I could quit consuming this stuff. Oh, it was going to be hard!!! I first thought that I could quit “cold turkey.” This did not work as I had horrible headaches from the lack of constant caffeine. Even through this pain, I was in action. I then decided that for one week I would only have two diet sodas a day. Then, the next week I would only have one diet soda. This would happen until I could finally quit having any soda at all. One day, after many days of action, I believed that I could live without a soda. And I did- after that day I only drank water! I felt better, and I felt more hydrated. I also liked that I no longer was dependent on this substance to make me happy. These benefits allowed me to maintain drinking water for a couple of months. Then one night I went to dinner… and relapsed (gasp). Yes, I had five tall glasses of diet soda. And to this day I am drinking diet soda. You could say that I am stuck into the relapse stage which is quite sad. I am hoping to quit again someday, but right now I need a vice.

Health Communication- Applied

What was most interesting and perhaps scary about watching the film, “And the Band Played On”, was that we are in many ways under the control of health professionals. AIDS could only be diagnosed by health practitioners, and a great deal of research. Each time something was found, it was imperative that it was communicated to the nation so that a person could perceive their risk. The movie begins as two doctors enter Central Africa as it is experiencing the Ebola Virus. These two men enter a horrific scene as people do not understand what kind of horrible sickness is taking their mothers, fathers, sisters, and brothers. One doctor clings to a woman who is mumbling a different language in a ghastly state. Her inability to communicate with the doctor is quite concerning because it is obviously something that is imperative in order to understand what is going on. Her non-verbal communication says a lot to him because it is abrupt and from it he can understand she is in pain. In many ways you wish you could speak her language so that you may comfort this woman that is clearly in a great amount of distress. The two doctors, one man in particular that does research for the rest of the movie, feel powerless. He continues to feel this powerlessness throughout the entire film.
Fast forwarding a couple of years, the AIDS virus begins to take shape. The first case occurs in Copenhagen, Denmark. Then cases start to form at the UCLA Medical Center, and in New York. Doctors find quickly that the disease destroys t-cells and it is between gay men. So far, communication has been between doctors. As more cases come up, the Center for Disease Control is notified. Now, organizational communication is used. Messages are constantly being passed from doctor, to doctor, to lab technician, to epidemiologist, and back to doctors. As more information on the disease is found, the health professionals start communicating with the mass media. Health practitioners know that they must get information out to those who could contract the virus, but they also want to make the information correct. There is a lot of stress during the movie as some facts are withheld from the general public as a means to save time and money. For instance, the blood banks knew that they had received blood from people with AIDS, but they did not want to throw away their resources so they chose to still give it to people. In the end, this would be communicated to people, and they would be devastated. It makes you rather angry when you see these professionals covering up certain information.
In terms of non-verbal communication, statistics speak a thousand words. The number of those infected and dying would increase greatly over the eighties. Those statistics can be quite scary, and they allow a person to perceive their threat. This goes along with the health belief model because if a person perceives that they are in great danger of receiving this disease, they will most likely make behavioral changes. The incentive in itself is to not contract the disease. If a man would have continued going to a Bathhouse during that time, their risk increased. If this man understood this, he would comprehend the amount he could benefit by not going to a bathhouse. This person must also be confidence in his actions and know that his actions would help him. As numbers increased, the disease was not found in just gay men. A woman who used a needle received the viruses which lead professionals to conclude that the disease could infect another through the act of sex, and the “swapping” of blood. Throughout the entire movie, there is constant interaction between health professionals.
I found it interesting that most of the doctors became interested in the business aspect of the disease. In many ways, they lost their empathy. These doctors were more concerned with saving money by not using blood tests, and not depleting the blood banks resources. Both of these things could have saves hundreds of people. Unfortunately this made the public view doctors in a different light. A doctor should communicate peace, and they should advocate change for the betterment of health. Phlebotomists must have lied to many people as they gave them infected blood. During this time, different countries were also in completion. The French scientists and the American scientists were both working on identifying the virus. There was a cultural disconnect with communication as the French saw the American as sex obsessed. I’m sure at first both countries and the working scientists were concerned with public health, but in the end, it became a fight to recognized in the scientific world. This was like organizational communication because the person who knew the most about the disease would be the “go to” person, and then information would trickle down as it finally reached the public through mass communication. The public then plans protests with huge signs and silent marches that model non verbal communication.
The theory of planned behavior model was also used in many ways during that time. The man they showed who ran the bath house had to have a change of attitude in order to shut down the bath houses. He understood that this would cut off a lot of revenue, but in the end it would save many men from getting AIDS. He received social pressure from the Center of Disease Control, and finally from the government. Because of his position as manager, he was in full control of assembling this change.
The stages of change model is difficult to use throughout the movie. Sadly, once a person receives AIDS from another, they cannot get rid of the disease. They could though, stop using dirty needles and stop having intercourse with a variety of people. The flight attendant in this movie is a good example. He seems to be stuck in the pre contemplation stage. He knows that he has infected someone but he does not wish to change. If he did wish to change he would take action and stop sleeping with so many people. He would keep this behavior, and hopefully not relapse. Instead though, he gives the disease to many people after he receives it.
Positive group communication occurs when the researchers and doctors sit around a round table. Many times they are arguing, but they always end up getting somewhere. This interpersonal, group, and one on one communication is highly effective. In fact, with health communication, it seems as though all types of communication are positive and they bring people closer to better health. Gender communication is also used in an interesting way throughout the film. Because AIDS is focused on the relationship between two males, the dynamic becomes different. There is one powerful woman in the movie and she is portrayed as someone who is quite knowledgeable in her area. The men in her professional world communicate to her with serious respect. When the disease can be contracted by blood, women are become aware that they could receive it too. Information then becomes useful to both men and women throughout the world.
The AIDS disease is now perceived a lot differently as it was back then. We now see it as a disease that one can live with. We are now concerned with those third and fourth world countries that do not seem to have the resources to handle the disease. The movie changed the way I thought about health communication because it showed how many parts of it there are. It incorporates many models and it includes a variety of communication contexts. After dealing with such an unknown disease, hopefully health professionals learned how to better communicate for change the next time something like this happens.