The Art of Communication

Intercultural Communication- Personal

2009-12-06T17:49:00.000-08:00

Every summer, my family and I pack our bags and head down to Mexico. I know you may find this trite- but my idea of Mexico is far different then the “American Spring break” impression. I have traveled all over Mexico, and every time I fall more in love with the culture. Mexico is a low context culture, and I have seen this as the people tend to listen more and speak less. I adore everything that makes their culture unique- the language, the food, the art. Every part of their customs is fascinating. I have been lucky enough to experience the tight bonds they form in family and in friendships. Last year I played with a little girl on the sidewalk in downtown Cancun. Some travelers walked by and gave me a look as to say I should separate myself from the child. I treasured playing with this little girl because I felt like we were fundamentally the same- we just wanted to laugh and giggle. I have been able to learn their language in a more effective manor through interaction with the people. I remember it being difficult at first to distinguish the differences in non verbal communication. For instance, it is not uncommon to be hugged or kissed on the cheek when being greeted. I also enjoy the way that their people dress. Their style is very relaxed, and there is not an emphasis on labels or money. Learning about what makes their culture diverse from my own is what permitted me to see it as stunning. I am a highly anxious person and whenever I go to Mexico, I feel at ease. In America we have a tendency to only relax if we feel we deserve to take the time. For example, I only feel that I can take a nap if I have finished all my homework. When I go down there, it is considered wonderful to lie on the beach and read a novel or a magazine. I have a great amount of respect for the people though, because they balance this peace with hard work. The people understand that American travelers contribute a great deal of money to their economy, and they go out of their way to be friendly. This is an illustration of the many ways that we are interdependent. Do I even need to talk about the food?! It is wonderful- absolutely delicious. I cannot imagine a diet without Mexican food. What is most interesting is that America has taken this unique food and made it its own. I have been told that Mexican food is supposed to be simple and fresh. In America, it is deep fried and filled with spices. My diet is filled with the food of other cultures. I cannot imagine a life without Mexican, Indian, or Italian food. We are so fortunate that we can experience culture through our taste buds.
I believe the classroom can only teach you so much. It is important to travel and immerse yourself in a culture so that you become a citizen of the world. Every time I travel, I try to submerge myself in a places culture so that I can let it influence me. I cannot wait to study abroad. I have always wanted to go to Germany, Ireland, and France. Learning about intercultural communication is so exciting to me because we have this opportunity to break down barriers. Perhaps more importantly though, we have the opportunity to establish these beautiful differences, that contribute to our knowledge of the world. I will fly down to Mexico until I can no longer get out of bed. Maybe I will even live there!

Intercultural Communication- Applied

2009-12-06T17:03:00.000-08:00

As I read about stereotyping in intercultural communication, I couldn’t help but wonder what role genetics play in our ethnic diversity. Further research into this topic lead me to an article in the New York Times entitled, “In DNA Era, New Worries About Prejudice.” In the year 2000, scientists decoded the human genome. The conclusions of this study showed that humans are remarkably similar. In fact, “the DNA of any two people… is at least 99 percent identical (Harmon).” The only thing left to be explained was the remaining one percent of difference. New research has proven that people of different ethnicities have dissimilar DNA. The small changes in DNA, “account for the pale skin of Europeans, the tendency of Asians to sweat less and West Africans’ resistance of certain diseases (Harmon).” People can take tests that will tell them what percent of their genes are from Asia, Europe, Africa, and the Americas. This new biological research is quite fascinating, but some social scientists believe it could contribute to even more ethnic stereotypes. Everything that scientists have revealed goes against the idea that we are all essentially equal. The problem is that these discoveries can be vast and expansive- we may find even larger differences between ethnic groups. An example of this would be linking I.Q. and DNA. Tiny bits of the differing genetic code have yet to be linked to behavioral or physical traits. On the other hand, this research can be used to map the spread of a disease as it has evolved across different continents. Many of the scientists who conduct this research are scared to talk about it openly because they fear they will lose support. In the Tubs and Moss book, it is imperative that people feel that we can speak of our differences as to better understand one another. Dr. David Altshuler, director of the Program in Medical and Population Genetics at the Broad Institute in Cambridge, Mass. asserts that, “it is so clear that the economic and social and educational differences have so much more influence than genes,” in America. This research is so troublesome because desirable and undesirable traits can be identified. This makes me wonder- is it best that we are sometimes left in the dark? Many wonder whether or not society is prepared to handle the knowledge of these differences. Some people believe that these findings will allow them to better address the different ethnic groups politically. Many sociologists and anthropologists have argued the fact that, “race… is a social intervention historically used to justify prejudice and persecution (Harmon).” I find this article to fascinating because it states that we walk a fine line in scientific research. I have been taught to believe that we are all alike no matter our skin color- these findings could destroy that idea. I worry that people will not be able to handle this information as they are to strongly ethnocentric. I believe that these findings will increase the knowledge of our differences, but we must also remember to stay peaceful, understanding, ethical, and unconditionally accepting.
Bibliography:
Harmon, Amy. "In DNA Era, New Worries About Prejudice ." The New York Times
11 Nov. 2007: n. pag. Web. 6 Dec. 2009.
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Intercultural Communication- Defintional

2009-12-06T14:39:00.000-08:00

Intercultural communication is defined as communication involving members of different cultures. These can be cultures defined in terms of racial, ethnic, or socioeconomic differences. The differences between groups are not always recognized. A culture is, “a way of life developed and shared by a group of people and passed down from generation to generation (312).” A culture is a make-up of a variety of special components- religious and political systems, customs, language, clothing, tools, art, etc. It is important to remember that not all members of a culture will share these special components. Cultures also transform and flourish over time. Culture is learned and not innate. This is why a person’s culture may change as he or she experiences the world around them. Knowing a culture and its values allows us to predict individual behavior with more ease. As people enter our culture, we tend to feel vulnerable because they question what we accept as true. Vast differences in culture usually form when people have had little to no contact with citizens from other ways of life. Differences among cultures happen are found gradually over a range of space.
There are three major approached when it comes to studying culture. The first is a Social Science approach. This approach is traditional and is built on the methods used in psychology and sociology. It states that, “behavior can be observed, measured, and predicted (314).” Our communication is seen as being influenced by our culture, and a lot of work goes into comparing cultures. The second is an Interpretive Approach. Its methods are from the studies of anthropology and linguistics. There is emphasis placed on the experience of the individual, and the research is qualitative. To perform research, people use field studies and personal observation. The goal is to understand the behavior- not to predict the actions. The last is the Critical approach. This approach is concerned with creating change. To do this, it examines the power relationships in each culture. Contexts include social, political, economic, and historical. This approach all focuses on social relations rather than individual. The approach utilizes texts and cultural products to produce change.
The mass migration of people, whether voluntary or involuntary, has created a century of displacement. Diaspora is a Greek term meaning scattering, though many dictionaries define is as a, “dispersal of people from their homeland (315).” There are four elements of this unique term. One is that the scattering of people usually includes at least two destinations. The people have a relationship to an actual or imagined homeland. The third element is that the people posses a self awareness of their distinctiveness. The last element is that this Diaspora must occur over at least two generations. Scholars study these movements because they are concerned with the, “way diasporic populations form bonds and maintain a sense of identity and community around the world (316).” Mass migration and the development of electronic media have influenced the way we view this movement.
Throughout the recent years there has been a gigantic increase in intercultural communication. For instance, one-third of New York City’s population is made from immigrants. The constant uses of technological innovations have brought together new and old cultures. People sometimes belong to a culture within a larger culture. This concept is defined as a co-culture. This means that we can associate ourselves with a large culture and a smaller culture at the same time.
There are several ways in which cultures vary. Cultures have differing ideas on individualism and collectivism. Individualism is, “the tendency of people in a given culture to value ‘individual identity over group identity, individual rights over group rights, and individual achievements over group concerns’ (Ting-Toomey and Chung).” On the other hand, collectivism is the tendency of the culture to value the group over the individual. In an individualist culture, emphasis is place on individual goals and they tend to communicate directly. Also within this culture there are many smaller groups (family, church, etc.) that have a small influence over behavior. In a collectivist culture the people avoid direct contact and they are concerned with the desires of the whole group. Example individualist cultures include the United States and France, whereas example collectivistic cultures include Mexico and Japan. High and low context cultures differ in the way that their information is coded. High context cultures are better at understanding non verbal behaviors and they assume other cultures will be able to do the same thing with ease. A high context culture speaks less and listens more. Examples of high context cultures would be China and Japan. A low context culture, “stresses direct and explicit communication (320).” They look closely at verbal messages. Some low context cultures include the United States and Canada. It is important that we see that not all members of an individualist society are individualists and so on and so forth. Power distances deals with the degree people of a culture accept authority of hierarchy as a natural part of their customs. This means that they expect some other people to be in higher power. Power distance can be seen in some degree in every culture. There is a parallel with gender in some cultures. A masculine culture values things such as work, strength, competition, and assertiveness. A feminine culture values traits such as affection, nurturing, compassion, and interpersonal relationships. Uncertainty avoidance is a measure of the amount people of a certain culture attempt to avoid uncertainty or vagueness about others. High uncertainty avoidance cultures include Belgium, Greece, and Spain. These cultures include people who embrace a large amount of information- they prefer rules. Cultures that are low in uncertainty avoidance include Canada and the United States. These cultures are more open to change.
There are many different principles and problems in intercultural communication. Even though technology is growing, it cannot allow many people over hundreds of cultures to communicate. The communication between different cultures has created more misunderstanding. The communication process uses a shared code system. This system has two aspects- verbal and non verbal. Without a shared code system, communication becomes impossible. Our own beliefs and behaviors establish the basis for different assumptions. Two people from different cultures might both place a meaning on one single behavior. There is a level of knowing and acceptance in intercultural communication. There are two components- knowing and acceptance. It’s not so much what you know, but more so how you accept differences. If we refuse to consider other norms and judge a culture by our own, effective communication will not take place. Effective communication can only take place if we adopt, “a shared code system, acknowledge differences in beliefs and behaviors, and learn to be tolerant of the beliefs and behaviors of others (323).” Differences in languages can be so much deeper than translation vagueness. There are deeper meanings placed on individual words. Theses associations can be lost because they are rooted in the culture of the language. Even if you translate a sentence perfectly, you still cannot account for culture-based linguistic styles. Often when we talk to people in a different culture we overlook nonverbal messages. A nod doesn’t always mean yes. These non verbal indicators can be quite complex. Vocal cues can also be problematic. The expression of emotion also varies from culture to culture. A way that we use to understand each other is called synchrony. This is the sharing of rhythms. When people speak they develop a pattern of rhythm, and during a beat or stress, a speaker will reveal important information. This is hard to use when talking to a person from a different culture because these non verbal and speech patterns vary.
In a culture, norms are set in place so that people develop rules of what is to be expected from each individual. A culture develops and gives these rules. Understanding these norms helps us deal with conflict. To deal with conflict, cultures will integrate, or compromise, dominate, avoid, neglect, express emotion through facial expression, and seek third party help. People with a strong cultural identity usually integrate and comprise more than those with a weak ethnic idea. Two variables distinguish the way members of a culture view interpersonal and family conflict- expressivity and privacy and individualism. Many cultures place less value on individual self-disclosure. In some high context cultures, for example, the, “direct expression of conflict is also considered inappropriate (328).” In America, we place emphasis on autonomy and we ask friends for advice on our problems. The Americans, the Africans, and the Japanese stress cooperation, affiliation, and dependence in their cultures. Roles are sets of norms that are used in different groups. An instance of this would be the differing roles of men and women. Interracial marriages have been on the rise in recent years. Sometimes the similarities between these two cultures can form a basis of attraction. It is true that these two cultures may have different definitions of marital roles.
We find it difficult to except the behaviors and norms of a different culture when they are not the same as our own. Our values help us what we deem to be right, good, important, or beautiful. Two scholars proposed one single universal principle (protonorm) that underlies all systematic ethics. This is the sacredness of life. This basic idea relates to our three master norms or core values. These core values consist of respect for human dignity, truth telling, and nonviolence. As we consider how those of a different culture adapt to a new culture we must understand that some beliefs and values improve their ability to live in another country. Those cultures that focus on compassion for others have created a harmony in their new home.
In is imperative that we move toward a great intercultural understanding and tolerance. Even though our technological world is growing, divisions between people of differing cultures are growing at a faster rate. These differences can also be found within the same country. Ethnocentrism, “is the tendency to judge the values, customs, behaviors, or other aspects of another culture in terms of those that our own cultural group regards are desirable or idea (333).” We will be ethnocentric about our own country or religion and this is not always a negative thing- it can be seen as patriotic. Countries that seem to be strongly ethnocentric include Asia, Africa, and Latin America. In order to “remove the tinted lenses” or our own culture, we must acknowledge the fact that ethnocentrism is universal. Reading the international news helps us fight our skewed world views. We tend to form stereotypes of others quickly. If we do not communicate with the other cultures personally, we cannot dismiss stereotypes. Stereotypes guide what is called defensive projections which is seeing our own unwelcomed traits in other people. The mass media seems to contribute to the development of stereotypes significantly. Now, the media industry seems to put ethnically diverse men and women in leading roles. This attempts to naturalize the differences between different ethnicities. Video games have created a disturbing trend of racial stereotyping. In order to no succumb to stereotypes, we should view the media with critical and analytical motives. We usually act on information we believe is true- this is why creating biases is so dangerous. Unfortunately, these problems will not be going away any time soon. Our mental images of fear are based on ethnic stereotypes. After the September 11th attacks, Americans began to stereotype Arab Americans. These people became the targets of hate crimes even though we know little to none about Arab culture. We can improve person perception by, “awareness that our perceptions can be inaccurate and empathy, sensitivity, or responsiveness (339).” The internet seems to be used for group polarization. Group polarization is this idea that after people discuss ideas, they are likely to be pulled strongly towards one side of the spectrum. The internet can be a dangerous source for misinformation. Online hate groups can support violence against different groups. On the other hand, the internet has the power to bring so many people together.
So that the people of the world may communicate more effectively, we need to promote greater harmony and tolerance. Intergroup contact will be optimal if there is, “equal status between groups, authority support, shared goals, and intergroup cooperation (341).” If these groups stop competing with each other, we will see a decrease in prejudice. Thomas Pettigrew also asserts that we need to add in the factor of friendship. We should feel familiar and friendly. Studying intergroup relations will cut down prejudice and point out variables that increase social inclusion. For instance, many people want to talk about race but they do not know how. Variables include appreciating difference, engaging the self, critical self reflection, and alliance building. We must become a citizen of the world- a “cosmopolitan.” This makes us understand that we have a responsibility to every human and that we can learn from our differences.
Although travel has been made more affordable and easier, people still tend to stay in their own groups and subgroups. All those people who read the newspaper and magazines, and watch the television understand that the world has become larger. Student exchange programs allow people to live within a culture and adapt some of that culture’s norms. Our whole world is interdependent and is affected by political, economic, and social change. Because communications, banking, and manufacturing have become international, our economies all seem to be tied together. Some international organizations “help to increase productivity and raise standards of living by providing such services as literacy training, education in modern agricultural methods, and help in turning local craft production into profitable cottage industries (345).” Some of our intercultural exchange can lead to cultural homogenization. This is the inclination for one culture to become like another. Some aspects of one culture will eliminate weak aspects of another. Though, this idea is not always true. A culture can take an idea and put their spin on it. For example, the McDonald’s in India serves veggie burgers. Our awareness that we are different can actually help us communicate with others. Some people believe that viewing images of human suffering can make us drawn to change. Others though, believe that the more we view these images, the more we desensitize ourselves. We must have diversity within our community. In order to communicate effectively with those of different cultures, we must be committed, mindful, and unconditionally accepting. We must be concerned for ourselves and others, we must be understanding, ethical, and most importantly, we must be peaceful.
Bibliography:
Tubbs, Stewart, & Moss, Sylvia (1974). Human Communication. New York, New York: McGraw-Hill .

Mass Communication- Personal

2009-12-03T12:48:00.000-08:00

Kids are Growing Up too Fast

Personally, I believe the media has a great deal of power over our thoughts and beliefs. I have babysat for four families in my neighborhood since the children were very young. I have watched all of them grow into different individuals. Two of the parents that I sat for did not allow their children to watch more than three hours of television per week. The other two, did not mind how much their children watched television, played video games, or surfed the web. At first, I found the parents who limited television to be uptight and naïve, as the children could simply go to their friend’s house and watch whatever they wanted. Over the years though, I began to see the effect of the media on the children who watch the small screen all the time. Two of the girls began to form an idea of this “perfect love.” They constantly asked me about boys, and wanted boyfriends of their own. They also seemed to dress more provocatively. I understood why this was happening because girls dressed rather risqué on the shows they were watching. Fascinatingly, they began to mirror the characters from their favorite television shows. If Miley Cirus was a singer, the little girl took singing lessons. It made me sad to see them trying to be someone they were not. The other girl and boy in the family that limited television were more active. They loved to rollerblade, bike ride, go for walks, and just sit around and chat. I loved being with them more because they were passionate about experiencing many things. They wanted to find things that made them happy. On television, girls rarely play boys sports. The media has had a lot to do with gender role shaping. Because the little girl had not had this idea impounded into her brain, she felt free to play baseball and flag football with her brother. The little boy who was allowed to play video games for hours and hours became somewhat aggressive and violent. He would walk around making shooting noises and hitting stuffed animals. At times I wanted to sit him and down and tell him that this violence would not solve problems. I know that sounds so cheesy, but it really did scare me to watch this boy believe that if he hit something, he would “make it to the next level.” The little girls who were allowed to watch the news rarely went to sleep easily. One of them would ask if they would get kidnapped, or if their house would get robbed. It upset me once again that these little girls were already starting to worry about the world’s troubles. The news is full of sickening and depressing stories, and it is not right to let young children watch these. I believe parents should try to keep their children sheltered for most of their youth. Kids need to know that the world is not perfect, but they certainly need to be able to enjoy their childhood and sleep at night. Over the years, I have gained a respect for parents to limit the role of media in their homes. Ideally, I know that it is impossible to shelter children from everything. I fear for the children that watch adolescent shows all the time, and focus on video games for hours and hours. I think that kids should get out into the world and make their own observations about what they like and do not like. After this time, they can select the media that reinforces their opinions and ideas. For now though, I wish children would fill their lives with the observation of nature.

Mass Communication- Applied

2009-12-03T11:51:00.000-08:00

It seems mass communication can have a devastating and magical effect on the public. For my applied blog this week, I wanted to talk about a more serious event that was discussed by the mass media- Hurricane Katrina. The newspaper, radio and television stations alerted the public as they anticipated a massive storm. People were asked to leave their homes and travel north to land that would not be as affected. Some did this, as media outlets broadcasted pictures of highways strung with cars. Others did not wish to leave the home they had built for their families as it would entail leaving a life behind. This choice had horrible effects. For days, television stations sent correspondents down to New Orleans so that they could broadcast this storm in action. I cannot imagine being asked to walk into the eye of the storm, but then again, these newscasters did not have a house to lose. Pictures of the storm were quite terrifying, and I remember thinking that the people who would not leave their houses were quite overconfident. The media portrayed these “dwellers” to be weak and in need of huge amounts of help. Broadcasting of the SuperDome left me feeling sick to my stomach. These people did not have enough supplies and they looked unhealthy. People stood on top of their roofs waiting to be saved, and others let the water wash over them. The media framed their information to make the government seem at fault. People constantly questioned why FEMA was so slow to help the people of New Orleans. I still do not understand why it took so long for people to receive supplies. People had started to steal things from shops so that their family could survive. The city of New Orleans was unsafe, as there were not enough police officers to reprimand those who committed a crime. I became angry at all the people who were watching this in the media and not taking action. It was not making sense to me- the media was speaking out, but still the government was slow to action. I am sure gatekeepers focused on the tailoring of the images so that people were emotionally driven to help. What I saw in some of the days that followed amazed me. It seemed that the media focused their attention on the individuals who were donating their time and money to the cleanup effort. The story was no longer about loss, but about hope. Things were still horrible, but the media began to show these images of optimism. This had a magical effect because more and more people then wanted to be a part of the effort. Money for rebuilding was swimming in right and left, and neighbors began to lean on each other for strength. This whole catastrophe became an opportunity for the media to highlight the strength and perseverance of the American people. It was quite wonderful what the citizens could do without the massive help of the government. Today, the citizens of New Orleans have saved their wonderful city. There is still damage and rebuilding needs to be done. The media still runs stories about the devastating hurricane to remind the people of the United States that we are tough. People selectively chose to be reminded of the hope that we all encompass. Without this strong audience (Americans, and people all over the world), the people of New Orleans could have never stood again. It is the duty of the media to broadcast stories that ask people to lend a hand. If one steps in to aid in the restoration effort one is then sending the media feedback that have been informed and persuaded. I do like the way the United States has a news agenda that displays the bad but also focuses on the good. Just think of everyone that could be changed for the better.

Mass Communication- Definitional

2009-12-02T21:07:00.001-08:00

Mass communication seems to be evolving constantly. Mass communication is unlike a personal encounter because it is mediated. There are three ways in which these mediated messages differ from personal messages. First of all, the sensory input prospective for the receivers is more restricted. Second, receivers are sometimes unable to offer their feedback. And lastly, receivers may not know the source from which the information came. Wright believes that in mass communication, “the audience is relatively large, heterogeneous, and anonymous to the source. The experience is public, rapid, and fleeting. The source works through a complex organization rather than in isolation, and the message may represent the efforts of many different people (503).”
In mass communication, the role of the audience is imperative, and it is important that one considers the size of the audience in a specific context. Because mass communication includes a massive audience, face-to-face communication does not take place. We have seen people steered into action as times of calamity, so we know that it is essential to get a point across to an audience. Though, in mass communication, the receivers of the message are widely unknown. These messages presented are, “intended for rapid consumption by great numbers of people (504).” Therefore, these messages are considered public and not private. When we hear a message through a mass communication effort, we must remember that it most likely have from a plethora of sources. Many individuals must compile their thoughts to construct an effective message. This effort includes a lot of time and funds. For instance, advertising companies spend millions of dollars to have a commercial air during the Super Bowl. The company also hires the people that are ideal for the job. And although this process can be costly, usually it pays off as its profits are, “equally spectacular (504).” In the United States we see advertising as a huge form of mass communication. Because we know these messages can be so effective, we must also reflect on the fact that ethics must be considered. To consider the effect of mass communication we must evaluate it next to different communication contexts. As we consider it, we must remember that in mass communication there is limited feedback.
Feedback is given in mass communication, it is just delayed. This feedback will also not be as complete as the feedback given in face to face communication. Also, we must consider the fact that mass communication weaves its message through a complex network of people. Sometimes the feedback that was specified to someone can end up reaching another person. Unfortunately, it is often impossible for one to respond to all the feedback that is given. An example of this would be a popular magazine. Thousands of people might contribute their thoughts, but only a few thoughts can be answered by the editor. On the other hand, technology is growing at such a rapid pace, and today more emails and faxes can be answered. In some ways, mass communication and face-to-face communication has a quantity of overlap.
As we think about the process of mass communication, we must consider the gatekeeper. A gatekeeper “is a person who, by selecting, changing, and/or rejecting messages, can influence the flow of information to a receiver or a group of receivers (508).” In thinking about this concept, we may remember its connecting to the construction of rumors. This gatekeeping exists in all mass media. In fact, in mass communication we will most likely find a network of gatekeepers. This procedure, “involves a selection process that has analogies with the selection process going on in all other contexts of communication- from interpersonal to organizational (509).” The gatekeeper must consider the economic impact of this message because mass media in the United States is concerned with profit making. The gatekeeper must also keep in mind legal restrictions that should be places on the message to make sure it does not get into the wrong hands or offend someone. Many people in the media have to gather and present information quickly, so deadlines become a cause of concern in accuracy and truth. A gatekeepers ethics will also tailor the message. In the media there is a great deal of dynamic competition so it is important for a gatekeeper to consider what looks best for their company. Gatekeepers must consider the importance of their message against all other messages. When understanding this, they must weigh the local and global interest of a situation. The gatekeeper must constantly look at the feedback he or she receivers in order to change or limit their message for the next time.
A lot of work with gatekeepers has been seen in war reporting. The problem with war reporting is usually access. Many journalists find ways that they can sneak past this dilemma. During the Vietnam War for instance, the link between the media and the military became tense. During the Gulf War, few media correspondents even knew what was going on. In recent years, the Pentagon created the concept of embedding which has changed the relationship between media and military operations. Embeds are journalists who are allowed to live and travel with the troops. In addition to these embeds, there are also journalists that are independent called unilateral. Embeds has access to the troops at all times, but were subject to censorship. These people often wrote dramatic stories that lacked all of the information necessary for one to understand the whole picture. Unilaterals have less contact with the troops, and little to no restrictions. Therefore, they see events in larger contexts and can attempt to travel anywhere, at any time they wish to witness a story. Unfortunately, these unilateral lack protection. Receivers of these war messages usually found that those constructed by the embeds where usually written in a more positive tone towards the military.
There are a lot of ethical considerations a gatekeeper makes in order to insure that the message doesn’t misrepresent a story. In the past years, different journalism stations have had to take risks and have their form declined ethically. The media can alter the way we see images. The media also has a tendency to not consider the privacy of an individual and they become intrusive. An example of this would be the night that Princess Diana dies in a car crash. Many reports say that she was being chased by a photojournalist. Sources in mass media must be credible so that we can gain a clearer understanding of a situation. In broader terms, gatekeepers must consider censorship, questions about federal power of broadcast licensing, and the duty of the mass media to the public. Because there are so many topics of information, gatekeepers must establish an agenda. In doing so, they do not tell us directly what to think, but rather they give us the information necessary to form our own thoughts. The information that they choose can have a huge impact on the public. It is important that they sometimes limit their information for private matters. In the end though, silence can be deadly. This kind of silence, not speaking up when horrible things are happening, is irresponsible. During times of war, the media must take all different kinds of patriotism into consideration. Some people do not believe it is right for the media to talk about the number of causalities in a war. Because media stations can show their own judgment of politics, broadcasting has adapted the Fairness Doctrine. This doctrine states that stations “devote a reasonable time to discussions or serious public issues and allow equal time for opposing views to be heard (Bagdikian and Rendall).” This is not always used by news stations, and the principles of censorship are still being well thought-out today. In constructing a story, media outlets must design the message to take into account everyone involved and distribute the profit and burdens of the point to those same people.
In earlier years, studies of mass communication showed that the message went directly to the sender from the receiver. According to this process (The Hypodermic Model), each audience affiliate receives messages straight from the starting place of a certain medium. If this information is powerful enough, it will influence the receiver. In some ways this is a miraculous thing, in other ways, this can have a perilous effect. As mass communication was researched more, people found that the media reinforced the preferences of voters in a campaign. Our major source of influence seems to be personal influence which is the pressure of other people. Put more simply, even in mass communication contexts, senders have to consider the viewer as being a part of a larger social setting. In some of these larger groups there is an opinion leader. This opinion leader is, “someone who, through day-to-day personal contacts and communication, influences someone else’s opinions and decisions (Wright).” These leaders influence decisions on all kinds of issues. Inside the different levels of society, you will find special opinion leaders. These people tend to be very well versed in their area of expertise, and therefore can contribute quite a bit of influence. This discovery leads to the development of the two-step flow model. This model says that information is first passed throughout the mass media, then in trickles down to opinion leaders. Then from these leaders, information is distributed to the populace.
As a part of the hypodermic model, an audience has to remain relatively passive and suck in all the information that is given off from the sender. Though, this does not always occur as the audience is now active. An audience can select the way in which it receives information. For example, some people watch the Today Show, and others prefer to read the New York Times. Because of this, you could say we have more control over the information that is being pushed at us. This goes along with the idea of selective exposure. If we choose to read a magazine that confirms our ideas, we are practicing selective exposure. As humans, we seek out places that will provide us with ideas, beliefs, and values like our own. More specifically though, what we take in from the various contexts is also selective, meaning we only hear what we want. This process includes the filtering of information. The receiving function in mass communication is very much like face-to-face communication as we tend to avoid using the work audience. Instead, we view the person who is processing the information to be a receiver also. There is also face-to-face communication used in developing a message because we have to remember that different opinion leaders and gatekeepers work together. Also, the feedback from the receiver can entail several steps.
The relationship between interpersonal and media technologies are being constantly questioned. Many people believe that the places we look for mass media information are very important in shaping our interpersonal communication. People also tend to, “make choices about what media they will use for particular reasons (521).” Many people believe that our search for information on the internet limits our social interaction. Researchers found this idea to be entirely untrue as families used their television for entertainment, and in turn used their computer for attaining information and communication. The internet is now being used widely as a source for credible information.
Closely tied to the concept of message flow is the study of the diffusion of information. The diffusion of information deals with, “how quickly news or information travels and the communication channels through which it spreads to a community or receivers (522).” This diffusion includes all kinds of information that is trickled down over time among members of a social system. After September 11th, the diffusion of information was rapid. Ninety percent of people hear about news through the mass media. The importance of the information will determine how rapidly it spreads. Sometimes we hear about information said in the mass media from others, and at times we hear about it in the presence of others. Once information is given off, its persuasiveness must be evaluated.
Because politicians know the great affect of the mass media on attitude influence they spend more and more each year during campaigns. Because these politicians are using new form of technology to get their information across, teenagers are becoming more and more involved. More Americans are also using the internet as their source for political information. Attitude influence has been studied over all the years of presidential debates. Millions of people tune in to watch these debates as they hope to have their attitude either reinforced or influenced. Those that did not watch the debate on television soon found out about it in the newspaper. These debates are crucial as they also influence those viewers who are impartial or undecided. Viewers tend to look closely at tone, posture, and hand movements in order to gain a greater understanding of the candidate’s personality. Interestingly, people tend to form their opinion about the debate after it occurs. The press’s interpretation of the debate is what usually influences society. Although this candidate packaging is sometimes seen as negative, it is imperative for us to form our views.
If one looks at the stories that run on the nightly news, or across the headlines of a news paper, then will begin to understand that the mass media has an agenda. This agenda is, “strictly a descriptive term for a prioritized list of items, the major topics found in newspapers, television programs, and other mass media messages (McCombs).” According to agenda setting theory, the press can tell us what to think by ranking the significance of certain issues. This influencing works as it is repeated day after day. You can also learn a lot by cues in asking yourself about the length of the article, the font size of a headline, and the page the article is presented on. We must be aware of this agenda setting so that our attitudes are not influenced as easily.
Another way that we are influenced by the media is framing. Framing is, “choosing a broad organizing theme for selecting, emphasizing, and linking the elements of a story (529).” Frames define the problems and are measured in terms of widespread cultural values. These frames also detect causes which identifies the force creating the dilemma. Frames also make moral judgments and suggest remedies. Frames can be seen as a way of telling a story from a certain point of view. The language we choose also has a huge amount to do with framing. This can be seen in politics when the society asks something like death penalty or execution? We should stay aware of terms like informed sources and right-winger.
In many ways, we learn new responses and behaviors simply by observing them. This process is defined as modeling. Movies, books, and television shows have significantly influenced the children and in some ways, adults, in our society. Children learn about jobs, material possessions, wealth and such through television dramas. It is interesting how men and women are portrayed differently through the media. In television for example, shows show married women who for the most part do not work. Because we know about this influence, the mass media has created the concept of role models. In movies women are sometimes to be portrayed as sex objects, and men are portrayed to not be as bright as women. This gender stereotyping seems to evolve over time. Children seem to be watching more television than ever. Children tend to remember news seen of the television more so than in the newspaper. All of this television has contributed to an increase in adolescent violence. George Gerbner studied the effect of television on our society. From his research he developed the cultivation theory which states that, “the greater amount of television you watch, the more your worldview comes to accord with the beliefs, values, and attitudes you see on the screen (535).” Through his project, he and other researchers have tried to monitor the amount of dramas children watch. Through constant watching of television we develop the mean world syndrome which leads us to believe that the world is not a kind place. Usually we believe that others are more influenced than we are- this is called the third person effect.
The National Institute of Mental Health believes that, “violence on television does lead to aggressive behavior… not all children become aggressive, but the correlations between violence and aggression are positive (536).” Apparently it exists in both boys and girls. Those who view violence fear being a victim, they decrease their sensitivity to it, and increase their want to be involved with violence. Children with violent tendencies choose to watch shows that support their thoughts. This is all very terrifying, but we must remember that mass media is a human creation and we cannot blame it on our problems.
Today, we tend to take technology for granted. This development will allow doctors to examine and diagnose patients from across the world. Narrowcasting refers, “to programming designed to target a specific segment of the media audience (538).” These new technologies affect how quickly a message reaches us. Virtual materials can now be sent all over the world- this is why we have an increasingly visual society. The volume of information has also greatly increased. Technology is thought of as a media extension. Technological advances show a trend towards this idea of convergence. Convergence is the merging, “or coming together of computing, telecommunications, and media in a digital environment (538).” For those that can afford it, their homes are filled with wireless fax, home shopping, and electronic newspapers. The distinctions between the various forms of media are becoming less and less and they are all coming together into one. This convergence will provide us who a more efficient world of journalism. Currently, 1.1 billion people use the internet. The computer is now used for a wide variety of interactive activities. This World Wide Web changes the way we read and write. Some scholars have even published their novels online. The average American spends 8.9 hours per week on the internet and many use the internet to be effective at work.
Another facet of the online world is the use of email. Studies have found that people’s favorite thing to do on the internet is read or write emails. This includes email, instant messages, and chat rooms. Email is essential in organizational communication. This can also affect the privacy of the message though. Email ethics seems to be forming every day. Now companies teleconference- they hole meetings with people in different locations. The telephone is used for audio conferencing. We see this happening on the news as different correspondents communicate with each other from different places in front of our eyes. Cell phones have become important devices in our world. Cell phones allow us to be engaged and they encourage us to use our time communicating with others who are not in our presence. The cell phone has changed the way we view people as available. In telecommunicating, “people work at different locations outside the main office, often at home, and are usually connected to a main office by computer and a high-speed modem (542).” All of this creates a more bendable work environment. We must also consider the fact that not everyone wants to work from home. Now there are thousands of video games offered throughout the world. These video games are often seen as controversial because they take up to much unnecessary time, and in many cases they are violent. Some believe that video games can actually increase our skills in different areas. These games can also deepen our problem solving skills.
The world has now created this new alternative media. Now we use blogs which is, “a website where information is updated and presented in reverse chronological order (543).” There are 12 million bloggers in the United States. Most of the information on blogs has been found to not be accurate. The mainstream media now uses blogs also. Media reform organizations have been formed to promote superior interactivity linking the press and the public. The Free Press and Accuracy in Media are examples of these types of organizations. Other news outlets are also emerging like small town radio stations that cater to their publics opinions.
All of these technologies have an effect on interpersonal communication. Now, there will be less face to face transactions, but we must also consider new technologies such as skype. These advances intensify a person’s selectivity. Many of these advances will advance communication as we can now communicate with others from across the world. Some communication that occurs online is not always reflective of us. Some studies have shown that those who use the internet at home express depression and isolation. Other research has found that the internet actually promotes social interaction as it allows us to stay connected with those we care about. There has been little research that has concluded that internet affects of social relationships. These changes in social networks are parallel with social changes. The internet should complement our social activities.
People are now concerned that technology is implementing a digital divide between people who can use, afford, and understand the information. Access to internet is limited to those who are well educated and in good economic standing. These divides seems to deal with race and economic social issues. It is our most sincere hope that this technology helps our world become a global human community. Borders have been taken down, and communication flows more freely. We can connect with other countries and promote change. Mass communication has the power to influence all of society. We must make ourselves aware of the ways in which the persuasion works. We must also work very hard to stay in touch with our global human community through advances in technology.
Bibliography:
Tubbs, Stewart, & Moss, Sylvia (1974). Human Communication. New York, New York: McGraw-Hill .

Small Group Communication- personal

2009-11-21T15:07:00.001-08:00

I have never had more fun in a group then I did last Thursday. I thought back to all the times I had worked with others to accomplish a task, and none of them were as exciting. This perplexes me because after learning about group communication, I think it should be a dynamic experience. Working with people that come from different backgrounds and areas of expertise is probably the number one way people can broaden their horizons. Plus I figure, why would I do something alone when I can do it some much better in a group of people?
So what was my team asked to accomplish you might ask? We were given fifteen minutes to construct a contraption that would be able to keep an egg safe from breaking. This egg would be dropped off four flights of stairs. We were put in a group of four or five people. I absolutely loved my group! It helps when everyone in your team is kind and not afraid to utilize humor at 9:30 am. We were given a small amount of supplies- all of which we had to fight for. Unfortunately, I did not do so well grab the supplies and only ended up with construction paper, a box, and rubber bands. Immediately I felt like I let my team down, but instead, all the girls were encouraging and told me I did a good job. Right off the bat, Mallory informs us that she has done this before and the most successful way to keep the egg safe is to lessen its impact when it hits the ground. From there, we decide to fully trust here and create an “air balloon” looking contraption. You could say that this was group think, and it was, but in our case it worked. We figured that if she had seen it done before, we could trust her. Since everyone grabbed the bags, I had the idea that we could break down the fibers of the paper to make them softer- more like fabric for a parachute. Because of our time restraint, our members immediately began rubbing the paper against the desk to do this. Two other girls start to tape the papers together as we are running out of time. Our group is highly stressed, but we are assuring each other that the task will get accomplished. Many times a girl in the group said something that made us all laugh which made the environment so easy and comfortable! No ideas were being judged and I noticed that our class was having a blast. This made me really happy considering we tend to be a quieter bunch. We continued to work efficiently with shaking hands as our teacher counted down the moments. I was stressed, but in a way that made me productive. I think stress in a group is a great way to get the adrenaline going! We ended up finishing our odd contraption with a bit of doubt. Still though, we were really curious to see whether or not it would keep the egg safe. It ended up being successful. I was so excited after this. I felt like I made a difference in my team when I thought of that idea. It is so cool when you realize that you have something to “bring to the table”. Everyone in my group made the process so positive, and it made me examine communication in a different manner.
After dropping the eggs, we sat down as a class and discussed our experience. Three out of the four groups were victorious! That must mean that we work well together. We all analyzed the different ways that we accomplished our task. Every group was different. What was surprising about the discussion was that no one really noticed that they had a leader. Every group had a person that came up with the first idea, and the members decided to go from there. Many of the clusters experienced groupthink. What was amazing was that we never noticed it while it was happening. Next time I am in a group, hopefully I will consider more options and create a plan B. If our contraption wouldn’t have worked I don’t know what we would have done! In the end, the experience was a great one. Even something as tiny as that shapes the way we perform in a team. I hope to do something like that again in the near future!

Small Group Communication- Applied

2009-11-21T14:35:00.001-08:00

I have to admit, I was stumped when it came time to write the applied blog for small group communication. I could not seem to think of a movie, book, or article I had ever read that really captured the complexity of small group communication. At first I thought of the movie “Dodgeball”- a funny film about a group of individuals who puts a team together to win a dodge ball tournament. But still, that didn’t seem like the ideal group of individuals I was searching for. Then, I had this brilliant idea- I could create the perfect team, give them a goal, let them brainstorm, and finally accomplish this task. I know it is impossible to have the “perfect” team because some conflict is constructive; however, I wanted to get close to enough to excellence.
So here is my team- it consists of three men, and three women. All the men and woman are between the age of 25-55, which comes in handy for the company who hired them. These men and women work for a dating website called “Match-Stick.com”. The website was created a couple of years ago by an older man called Andy, and it has been highly successful. Andy wants this holiday season to be full of love! Therefore, he wishes to meet a quota of matches by the end of New Years. Matches can only be successful if the couple reports to the website that they have made it past the first date. Andy has decided to higher this group of individuals to work together in a “work group” to create new questions and analyze past data. He also wants them to bring in their expertise on what is “attractive” at any age currently. All of the members have worked on teams many times before which will be the number one reason they are so effective.
Even before the group meets, they work though phase one of group development well. Each person detaches themselves from other obligations and learns about each member they will be working with. Based on John merits and background in this kind of matter, they decide to make him their leader. John will keep the group on track; he will be confident, and also supportive. He has been a leader many times before. Members call and email each other so that they know each person’s educational background and clue them in on what they can “bring to the table”. During phase two, storming, the group experiences constructive conflict. Amy, one of the girls does not agree with Dan’s idea because of some statistical evidence she knows. And Rachel asserts her educational background in gender studies from Harvard. The group does not get as much done during this phase, but still they are learning all about each other. During phase three, norming, the group will develop a wonderful balance. Each person starts to understand what they need to do to contribute the process. All members remain individuals, but the work and time they spend is a smoother process. During phase four, the group really starts performing! They brainstorm for hours and hours using the nominal group technique. The group is open to new ideas and instead of shooting other members down, they encourage them! Ideas are added, multiplied, divided, and subtracted. Questions are analyzed, tried, and researched. Every time a new question for the dating survey is developed, the group agrees on it fully- they form a consensus.
Meetings begin with a typed agenda written by John, the leader. The agenda states what the group accomplished during the last meeting and what they hope to accomplish next. For instance, during a certain day, half the group is asked to go out and walk the streets of New York City researching what “types” of people attract one another. The other half of the group is asked to analyze the data they have collected about what has worked for the site in the past. After a few weeks, the group has become close and tight knit. They enjoy each other’s company and they are highly invested in their work. Sometimes, they even stay later if they have not finished. They become highly cohesive. Humor is constantly used as a means to make the group less stressed as they are in constant pressure to meet a deadline. All channels and lines of communication are now open and the group has set high standards for themselves. Once in a while, the group experiences group think, but John tries to make sure all possible solutions are considered and all voices are heard. Their leader also tries to make each and every day fun because analyzing human beings is interesting and exciting. He thinks of new ways to brainstorm and sometimes he brings in media artifacts. When something doesn’t go as expected, the members still encourage each other. If problems arise, the group tries to “harmonize” and mediate their differences. All of the progress made by the group is kept in record and comprise is used all the time.
You may be sitting here thinking that this team is a “dream team”. It is not though, each and every person can change the way they function in a group. If every person changed their attitude and work ethics, possibly their team could be great. In today’s fast paced society people have a tendency to settle and create lower standards. But think of all the expertise that the world contains. There are so many people that could work together to solve enormous problems. This teams ends up creating a set of questions that allows people to pinpoint the exact person that would complement them. A graphic designer on the team worked with the website to make it look more romantic for the holidays. By the end of new years, 500 matches were made. This can happen! The group is excited beyond belief and this opportunity has shaped the way they work in a group.

Small Group Communication- Definitional

2009-11-20T16:29:00.000-08:00

We spend so much of our lives working with other people! During one year, “eleven million meetings occur in the United States every day”, which makes for a lot of complex interaction (386). Unfortunately though, “Over 50 percent of this meeting time is wasted” (386). Some groups can come together and complete enormous tasks and make intelligent decisions, but they accomplish these things by working together in a positive and effective manner. Armour makes some suggestions on how we can make meetings more constructive. Some of the suggestions include but are not limited to: being prepared ahead of time, distributing an agenda, and starting and ending the meeting on time. As we look at small group communication we will focus in on problem solving, or task-oriented groups. To analyze group communication one must first look at the way a group typically functions, then more specifically, one must provide insight for how an individual group member can become more effective. Tubbs defines a small group as a, “collection of individuals who influence one another, derive some satisfaction from maintaining membership in the group, interact for some purpose, assume specialized roles, are dependent on one another, and communicate face to face” (387). This might seem like a lot of criteria, but a group does not have to use all six functions.
As soon as we are born, we are put into a primary group- our family. These groups are informal. Once a person belongs to a group their social identity forms and they continue to shape this identity as they extend their relationships to casual or social groups. Even if these relationships don’t last very long, the people influence our thoughts and ideas for years after. When people come together to teach or learn something about a given subject they are members of a learning or educational group. These types of groups can also include seminars or courses in which people interact in clusters. This type of group has also been called an, “enlightenment group” (Brilhart and Galanes). During our lives we will most likely be a part of a work group that includes us working with people to accomplish specific goals in a job setting. Members of these groups may have very little in common and they usually receive payment for their individual contributions. If you do not participate in this type of a group you will most likely lose your job, meaning the consequence is worse. Recently, the “employment world” developed this idea of the self-directed work team. This is defined as a group of individuals that must manage themselves and work with minimum supervision. These members, “handle job assignments, plan and schedule work, make production and/or service related decisions, and take action on problems” (Fisher). This seems to work well because those closest to the work know how to perform, employees want to feel like they own their jobs and are effective, and these groups feel empowered.
One of the most common complaints about small groups is that they take too much time and people rarely accomplish all that they should. In order to correct this problem, one must examine the behavior of each individual in the group. Dealing with conformity pressure is a huge part of working in a problem solving small group. An example of this would be the fact that if you were to ask a group of individuals a question, they would most likely all start answering the same way. Even if a person thought the answer wasn’t necessarily correct, they would still use it because the four or five people who answered before them chose that response. If you asked the question and then told the group members to disperse themselves in other rooms, they would most likely answer differently. This is such a problem because group members seldom get to establish their point against a mass decision. The example above looks at private acceptance and public compliance. These two ideas deal with whether, “people change their thinking as a result of hearing opinions different from their own or whether they say they agree with the group when in fact they disagree” (389). Private acceptance can happen when a person values the other members, their opinion is against him or her, the question begins as unclear, or when the group is under strain to reach their goal. This person that conforms is, “more submissive and dependent, high in need for social approval and low in need to be outstanding, more often female than male, and lacking in self confidence” (Hare).
When a person first joins a group, they tend to receive a lot of pressure to conform. This is because these new comers have not earned the right to go against the set norms. The most “closely-knit” a group is, they more likely they are to give off strong conformity pressures. What usually happens to a person that goes against the group norms? Well, at first this individual will get the group’s attention. Then, the group will try to persuade the individual to see it their way. If this person doesn’t come around, they become ignored or rejected. According to Festinger, we all yield to social pressure because, “human beings have a need to evaluate their own opinions and abilities and that when they cannot do so by objective nonsocial means, they compare them with those of other people”. For instance, you can compare yourself to other drives so that you know how good of a driver you are.
On the other hand, the risky shift phenomenon states that people are more likely to take risks when they are a part of a group. This is because not one member feels totally responsible for the decision. Also, people tend to be more persuasive in a group when they are arguing for something that is risky. Our western culture seems to value this behavior over conservative behavior. When working in a group, one might notice that the conclusion they come to might be riskier than the decision each individual would have concluded.
A very large part of being in a small group has to deal with this concept coined by Irving Janis called “groupthink”. As a part of groupthink we have to understand that the, “judgments of other people affect our attitudes, beliefs, and values as well as our perceptions” (392). The effect of these norms is not always negative. During groupthink ideas accepted by the group are not examined, and those ideas that oppose are concealed. You can see this happening in political and social contexts. This phenomenon is so powerful because people do not know when it is occurring, and people are afraid to say their own opinions because it will make them an outsider. Groupthink often causes, “us to use limited organizational resources in suboptimal ways” (393). Janis concurs that there are eight symptoms of groupthink: (1)members see themselves as not susceptible when it comes to risks, (2)warnings and negative feedback are rationalized, (3) members suppose that they are moral and can be excluded from ethical concerns, (4)leaders of other groups are considered terrible, (5)members who go away from the group are pressured to obey the rules, (6) members do not speak out when they oppose, (7) members believe that their choice is undisputed, (8) and finally, members screen the group from unpleasant information. In the end, the group doesn’t consider a “plan B”, fails to look at their decision, doesn’t gain all necessary information, and doesn’t see all sides of the issue.
Many times throughout our lives we are asked to brainstorm. This brainstorming allows us to be creative and think about a number of original ideas that could solve a dilemma. When this is asked of us, the more ideas we come up with, the better! When people come together after they have brainstormed they can play off each other’s ideas and come to a whole new conclusion. When people are sharing their ideas it is important that people do not “shoot them down” by saying things like, “that’s ridiculous,” or, “it’s impossible”. Instead, members should use terms that are positively reinforce the individual. An example of this would be, “We can do a lot with that idea”. Although it sounds cheesy, a creative group will yield the most ideas when they are considered happy. This is why humor is a thing to use in small groups. Humor alleviates stress and makes the group feel more energetic. Those people who believe in the power of brainstorming time and tasks will most likely be highly effective when it comes to generating new ideas. These people are not afraid to communicate their ideas and they have a higher tolerance for vagueness.
An imperative part of analyzing a team is realizing the role of each group member. Robert Bales of Harvard University developed a method that provides a framework that one can view the functions and patterns of communication. Each instance a group member interacts with another, their communication is assigned to one category, and after scoring, patterns of behavior become evident. The categories consist of (A) positive and mixed actions, (B) attempted answers, (C) questions, and (D) negative and mixed actions. Category A includes: seeming friendly, dramatizing, and agreeing. Category B includes: giving suggestions, giving opinions, and giving information. Category C includes: asking for information, asking for an opinion, and asking for a suggestion. Finally, category D includes: disagreeing, showing tension, and seeming unfriendly. Many groups need someone that challenges them. In terms of group task behaviors, Tubbs developed many roles that should be directed from each member towards accomplishing a goal. An individual that is initiating-contributing proposes new and exciting ways to deal with things. Perhaps this person could even rephrase the problem they are dealing with. An information seeking person makes sure that they ask questions so that they are clearly being told what is asked of them. Someone who is opinion seeking is not concerned with facts as much as they wish to know the reason behind the facts. On the other hand, an information giving person is constantly offering facts and data. Commonly, a group will have an elaborator that expands on the suggestions made by other members. The group coordinator will offer idea connecting suggestions, and they bring the group closer. A person who is orienting knows the positions of the group members and helps them stay on track. A group evaluator will compare the accomplishments of their group to those of another. Every group needs and energizer to help them when they do not feel like pulling forward. A member that is assisting on procedure will perform routine tasks for the group. And lastly, a group recorder will compile suggestions and outcomes.
Groups need to build their bond and maintain their roles in order to remain effective. To keep the group in proper functioning order, group members should be encouraging, work in harmony, and allow compromise. They should keep communication channels open, set standards, observe their group progression, and try to follow the group’s ideas. Each individual will also take on a role that more so benefits themselves than their group. Group members can sometimes be aggressive, they can block out information, and they can be recognition seeking. At some point, a group member may use the group to express their personal feelings. In many groups you will find the “jokester” and the person who wishes to dominate. One who is “help seeking” often expresses insecurity. And lastly, someone that is special-interest pleading will speak on the behalf of a predicament suppressing their own prejudices.
When group member problem solve together for a period of time they become emotionally dedicated. It is true that a cohesive group is in fact more effective. Cohesiveness is defined as, “the total field of forces acting on members to remain in the group” (Schachter). These groups contain members and are invested and they find joy in spending time together. Although this group is not always more productive because they can be “chatty” and more social, they tend to get through crisis situations, aid each other, and ask questions explicitly. These members might also feel more comfortable discussing a suggestion that doesn’t blend with the group’s proposal. For some people, working with others can be dull, exasperating, and very tiring. Feelings have a very important place in a problem solving group. These feelings should be carefully examined.
There are four imperative phases of group development. One’s understand of these phases allows them to measure the development of the group, make predictions about progress, and plan interventions to make the cluster more successful. Phase one is defined as “forming” which really beings prior to the group even meeting. During this stage, members will remove themselves from other things that could conflict with achieving their new goal, and they try to find out about each other. This can take anywhere from one day to many weeks, and the communication that takes place is usually guarded. During phase two, storming, individuals will begin to assert themselves and their place within the group. The language during this phase is direct, and things are not always as productive. People will question their leader, and ask themselves how emotionally committed they should be. During phase three, the group will develop norms and form a balance. This is the response to the storming phase and it doesn’t mean that all issues are resolved. The group becomes more closely knit and problem solving runs smoothly. During phase three, the group is most productive. At points during this phase, group members might make negative comments. Humor is also added to the mix. You may tend to see an overlap in behaviors for each phase.
Three variables add up to the structure of the group. These three variables are defined as group size, networks, and leadership. The group size will affect group effectiveness because you might notice that when working in a larger group, only a few people can contribute and not all ideas are expressed. Also, when groups get larger, smaller groups tend to form within the group. As groups expand beyond 20 the quality of their group progress decreases. Ideally, a group should have five members to remain successful. The group size and social pressure can affect the group interaction progression. Communication networks deal with the patterns of communication. Robert Townsend developed one model that includes three types of management organization. The best organization has a manger on top that delegates to two people on the same level at the bottom. The next has the manager on the top followed by people that go down in level below them. The weakest organization includes a manager that has an aide and two people right underneath. There are five types of communication networks: wheel, chain, Y, circle, and all-channel. In a wheel, one person becomes the leader and the source of comments from four others. For the chain network, “three people can communicate with those on either side of them, but the other two with only one other member of the group” (406). For a Y network, which resembles the chain, only three people can converse with that one person. During a circular function, one person can communicate with only two others. This circle arrangement may be “leaderless”. A group that uses the all channel network is allowed to communicate freely with each person- meaning all communication lines are open. The wheel usually yields the fasts performance, and the circle group is usually unsystematic. The circle function all accumulates a large number of errors in communication. The drawback of these networks is that a group really needs to look at its organization when solving a problem, and they should not just look at the problem in itself. If a group simply understands the procedure it must take to solve a problem, the network won’t matter as much. Centralized networks usually solve smaller problems while decentralized networks solve more complex issues. These decentralized networks have become more desirable for this reason.
Throughout the years, technology has taken shape everywhere around us! Technology improves group efficiency in immense ways. Groups can now communicate so many different ways. For instance, groups can now meet via video chat which makes “global groups” possible. People no longer have to sit next to one another to communicate. This can be troublesome though because members miss out on a lot of non verbal communication. This can also slow relationship building as conversations become fewer and fewer. For a flourishing online group to communicate it needs constant and available technical support, a way to know when the other members are logged on, and designed regulations for decision making. These online groups allow people to “be together”, without physically being in each other’s presence, which can be wonderful in this fast paced culture. People can interact whenever they find time throughout the day. Videoconferencing has allowed groups to meet together at a set time all across the globe. The availability of this technology has been widely increased. This sort of think makes group communication so exciting!
A lot of research has been put into shaping the characteristics of a great leader. Although a leader is usually bright and confident, there are no essential distinctive traits that they exhibit. New studies view leadership, “not as a quality, but as a series of functions that groups must have performed” (408). The leader will perform these functions and sometimes delegate them to others. Two major guidance actions include task functions and consideration functions. Task functions are duties that help the group successfully attain their goal. Consideration functions include tasks that improve the feelings of the members and group cohesiveness. These duties cannot usually be performed simultaneously, so many groups will ask for two leaders. It is still true today that leaders and not born, but are made. When we see someone emerging as a leader they usually have great ideas and a lot of concern for the group. This person will usually make sacrifices for the betterment of the group. An important characteristic of a wonderful leader is emotional intelligence. A leader should be self-aware, self-regulating, motivated, empathetic, and they should have great social skills.
At times, people can find that they are in group that is irritating, uninteresting, and lengthy. This may make them want to quit as they know that this will result in poor conclusions. Though, we must remember that there are certain things that must be done in a group, and for that reason we should try to work with people as well as possible. James Surowiecki believes that a group will perform well if they possess four elemental characteristics. A group must contain all different types of people and there should not be a definitive leader crowned. The group member’s thoughts should be put into one mutual answer, and each affiliate should access the group data. High performance teams get results, have shared purpose, and try to improve themselves, focus on the task at hand, and set high standards. The more training group members have, the more victorious they become. This experience is defined as social learning. In some horrible group situations, it is important to remember that we have the power only to change our characteristics.
For a small group to be effective problem solvers they should introduce applicable issues, inflate ideas, and document assertions. A group should also stick with a goal and accomplish it in an organized fashion. A couple of complaints made about small groups are that group members cannot seem to brainstorm, objectives are not set in stone, members don’t help each other, and conflict become prevalent. For many reasons, groups never even reach a conclusion because a discussion is not carried on long enough. Setting an agenda is a great way to make sure the group stays on task and looks at the problem in a different manner. Groups should ask themselves what the best solution really is, and what causes the problem. They should also question what an adequate solution could be and then analyze what needs to be done to accomplish that resolution. Brainstorming can be awesome when it comes to generating new ideas if a group follows a set of six rules. First, then group members should not judge each other, and second, people should let their minds “run wild” in order to produce results. Thirdly, a person should sit and think of as many ideas as he or she can. Fourthly, from these ideas, a person should combine and improve. Next, they should write down and keep record of all these ideas and evaluate them at a later time. Once many ideas are accumulated, a group should use them mathematically- multiply them, add them, divide them.
A new method commonly used in business and industry to create a positive discussion method is called nominal group technique. This method has six phases. During the first phase the group remains silent and writes ideas down on paper. Next, they list all these ideas so that they are visible to the entire group. Now the group will look over the ideas and discuss them. These ideas will receive a rating which leads to a vote. The last phase ranks the final ideas. The method helped teams make better decisions in the end. Most importantly, though, groups should first analyze a problem carefully before they ever attempt to solve it.
Some times conflict can benefit a group and push it to grow. You wouldn’t want someone to agree with you all the time- that becomes boring. Two types of conflict are constructive and destructive. This constructive conflict makes for intelligent discussion and is seen as intellectual. Destructive conflict has to do more with personal and emotional conflicts. When these types of conflicts arise, humor should be used to lighten the tension.
If we assume that a group will always make a decision, we can analyze the ways that they carry out the task. A consensus is, “an agreement among all members of a group concerning a given decision” (415). A high consensus group uses more than one method to problem solve, generates a variety of solutions, changes integration methods, and terminates “episodes”. On the other hand, low consensus groups rarely use more than one method of problem solving, repeat one type of integration, generate a minimal number of solutions that are made later, and introduce claims that are underdeveloped. If a majority vote is reached, that means that 51% of the group’s members agree. Unfortunately, some groups arrive at their decision by handclasping which happens when minority members within a group form a coalition to help each other achieve mutuality advantageous goals. When a few members force their opinion on the group it is defined as railroading. Usually the leader of a group will do this.
We can only know how well our group is performing if we have worked in a group before. Experience is key! Group leaders can evaluate their group using six criteria. Roles of the participants should be clarified, the right people should be in a leadership position, plans should be required, client feedback should be assessed, members should be invested, and finally, members should compensate.
There is still a lot to learn about group communication but it is important to remember that the more be place ourselves in group situations, the more we learn and grow. Perhaps someday, I will become a great leader, but it will take time!

Bibliography:
Tubbs, Stewart, & Moss, Sylvia (1974). Human Communication. New York, New York: McGraw-Hill .

Health Communication- Personal

2009-11-07T21:19:00.000-08:00

Because many aspects of health communication are so serious, I decided that I would discuss a personal experience that was somewhat humorous compared to a mass disease. I would like to talk about by practice with the stages of change model, and my need to quit drinking diet soda! Let’s face it; many women throughout the world share this same problem. I know that this “fake sugar” cannot benefit my body, and to be honest, I was having around twenty diet sodas a day. During my pre-contemplation stage, I was soooo not ready to change. I was out at restaurants drinking this carcinogenic liquid like it was my job. I loved every kind of diet soda, and my mind could not fathom the idea of giving up all this caffeine. Then one day I thought about how much I depended on diet soda to get through the day- I know it’s quite sad. I really needed it! I never wanted to depend on something in my life, so I began to contemplate changing. In preparation I thought about all the ways I could quit consuming this stuff. Oh, it was going to be hard!!! I first thought that I could quit “cold turkey.” This did not work as I had horrible headaches from the lack of constant caffeine. Even through this pain, I was in action. I then decided that for one week I would only have two diet sodas a day. Then, the next week I would only have one diet soda. This would happen until I could finally quit having any soda at all. One day, after many days of action, I believed that I could live without a soda. And I did- after that day I only drank water! I felt better, and I felt more hydrated. I also liked that I no longer was dependent on this substance to make me happy. These benefits allowed me to maintain drinking water for a couple of months. Then one night I went to dinner… and relapsed (gasp). Yes, I had five tall glasses of diet soda. And to this day I am drinking diet soda. You could say that I am stuck into the relapse stage which is quite sad. I am hoping to quit again someday, but right now I need a vice.

Health Communication- Applied

2009-11-07T21:17:00.000-08:00

What was most interesting and perhaps scary about watching the film, “And the Band Played On”, was that we are in many ways under the control of health professionals. AIDS could only be diagnosed by health practitioners, and a great deal of research. Each time something was found, it was imperative that it was communicated to the nation so that a person could perceive their risk. The movie begins as two doctors enter Central Africa as it is experiencing the Ebola Virus. These two men enter a horrific scene as people do not understand what kind of horrible sickness is taking their mothers, fathers, sisters, and brothers. One doctor clings to a woman who is mumbling a different language in a ghastly state. Her inability to communicate with the doctor is quite concerning because it is obviously something that is imperative in order to understand what is going on. Her non-verbal communication says a lot to him because it is abrupt and from it he can understand she is in pain. In many ways you wish you could speak her language so that you may comfort this woman that is clearly in a great amount of distress. The two doctors, one man in particular that does research for the rest of the movie, feel powerless. He continues to feel this powerlessness throughout the entire film.
Fast forwarding a couple of years, the AIDS virus begins to take shape. The first case occurs in Copenhagen, Denmark. Then cases start to form at the UCLA Medical Center, and in New York. Doctors find quickly that the disease destroys t-cells and it is between gay men. So far, communication has been between doctors. As more cases come up, the Center for Disease Control is notified. Now, organizational communication is used. Messages are constantly being passed from doctor, to doctor, to lab technician, to epidemiologist, and back to doctors. As more information on the disease is found, the health professionals start communicating with the mass media. Health practitioners know that they must get information out to those who could contract the virus, but they also want to make the information correct. There is a lot of stress during the movie as some facts are withheld from the general public as a means to save time and money. For instance, the blood banks knew that they had received blood from people with AIDS, but they did not want to throw away their resources so they chose to still give it to people. In the end, this would be communicated to people, and they would be devastated. It makes you rather angry when you see these professionals covering up certain information.
In terms of non-verbal communication, statistics speak a thousand words. The number of those infected and dying would increase greatly over the eighties. Those statistics can be quite scary, and they allow a person to perceive their threat. This goes along with the health belief model because if a person perceives that they are in great danger of receiving this disease, they will most likely make behavioral changes. The incentive in itself is to not contract the disease. If a man would have continued going to a Bathhouse during that time, their risk increased. If this man understood this, he would comprehend the amount he could benefit by not going to a bathhouse. This person must also be confidence in his actions and know that his actions would help him. As numbers increased, the disease was not found in just gay men. A woman who used a needle received the viruses which lead professionals to conclude that the disease could infect another through the act of sex, and the “swapping” of blood. Throughout the entire movie, there is constant interaction between health professionals.
I found it interesting that most of the doctors became interested in the business aspect of the disease. In many ways, they lost their empathy. These doctors were more concerned with saving money by not using blood tests, and not depleting the blood banks resources. Both of these things could have saves hundreds of people. Unfortunately this made the public view doctors in a different light. A doctor should communicate peace, and they should advocate change for the betterment of health. Phlebotomists must have lied to many people as they gave them infected blood. During this time, different countries were also in completion. The French scientists and the American scientists were both working on identifying the virus. There was a cultural disconnect with communication as the French saw the American as sex obsessed. I’m sure at first both countries and the working scientists were concerned with public health, but in the end, it became a fight to recognized in the scientific world. This was like organizational communication because the person who knew the most about the disease would be the “go to” person, and then information would trickle down as it finally reached the public through mass communication. The public then plans protests with huge signs and silent marches that model non verbal communication.
The theory of planned behavior model was also used in many ways during that time. The man they showed who ran the bath house had to have a change of attitude in order to shut down the bath houses. He understood that this would cut off a lot of revenue, but in the end it would save many men from getting AIDS. He received social pressure from the Center of Disease Control, and finally from the government. Because of his position as manager, he was in full control of assembling this change.
The stages of change model is difficult to use throughout the movie. Sadly, once a person receives AIDS from another, they cannot get rid of the disease. They could though, stop using dirty needles and stop having intercourse with a variety of people. The flight attendant in this movie is a good example. He seems to be stuck in the pre contemplation stage. He knows that he has infected someone but he does not wish to change. If he did wish to change he would take action and stop sleeping with so many people. He would keep this behavior, and hopefully not relapse. Instead though, he gives the disease to many people after he receives it.
Positive group communication occurs when the researchers and doctors sit around a round table. Many times they are arguing, but they always end up getting somewhere. This interpersonal, group, and one on one communication is highly effective. In fact, with health communication, it seems as though all types of communication are positive and they bring people closer to better health. Gender communication is also used in an interesting way throughout the film. Because AIDS is focused on the relationship between two males, the dynamic becomes different. There is one powerful woman in the movie and she is portrayed as someone who is quite knowledgeable in her area. The men in her professional world communicate to her with serious respect. When the disease can be contracted by blood, women are become aware that they could receive it too. Information then becomes useful to both men and women throughout the world.
The AIDS disease is now perceived a lot differently as it was back then. We now see it as a disease that one can live with. We are now concerned with those third and fourth world countries that do not seem to have the resources to handle the disease. The movie changed the way I thought about health communication because it showed how many parts of it there are. It incorporates many models and it includes a variety of communication contexts. After dealing with such an unknown disease, hopefully health professionals learned how to better communicate for change the next time something like this happens.

Health Communication- Defintional

2009-11-07T21:11:00.000-08:00

Health communication-
As we have learned, communication is an art, and it is a purposeful process. Communication is imperative as a means to improve someone’s health. Health promotion, according to Kiger, is a planned process. We can only know how effective the health communication is if the, “audience has achieved, acted, or responded to a message (Corcoran-6).”
We are used to seeing a three part communication model that flows from left to right with sender, message, and receiver. With health communication, two more components are added: complete understanding by the receiver and feedback to the sender. It is important to remember that this communication is a never ending process and it is not linear, it is indeed circular. Watzlawick breaks communication down into two simple part- content and relationship. The content is the message and information transmitted and the relationship “consists of the dynamic between those in the communication transaction (Corcoran-6).” For health communication, the sender with be the health practitioner and the receiver will be the intended audience. The messages will contain verbal and non verbal parts. The verbal aspects will obviously include words and sentences, while the non verbal parts will include four new elements according to Ellis and Beattie- prosodic, paralinguistic, kinesics, and standing features. Prosodic elements are defined by intonation and rhythm and paralinguistic features are vocal but non verbal. An example of paralinguistic expression would be “mmm.” Our body language, eye contact, and gestures would be examples of kinesics. Our appearance a factor in standing features, and many times people have beliefs how a doctor should look. The language and lexical content of a message are also imperative. The lexical content of the message is the words. If doctors use words or abbreviations that their audience does not understand, the lexical content is negative. Many researchers have found that repetition is a great way to get a message across to an audience so that it “sticks”. In health communication, the process of sending a message can happen in a variety of ways. If a physician wishes to hand out a pamphlet, his or her appearance doesn’t matter as much as what the pamphlet says. On the other hand, a nurse doing a one-on-one health screening should look at her appearance as influential in determining her effectiveness.
Health communication correlates with individual, group, organizational, community, and mass media communication. The focus in health communication is one specific to health information. Adding the word health in front of communication allows us to understand how we can effectively use what we know about the art of communication to educate people so that they may avoid poor health. The approach to health promotion is a holistic one. It is important to go back over the different levels that health communication can occur. Intrapersonal communication includes our “inner voice” and interpersonal communication happens one-on-one, in small groups, through emails, and telephone calls. Organizational communication can occur in lectures, seminars, and debates. Communication throughout the community can include local talk radio and news papers. And finally, public or mass communication can be spread through newspapers, magazines, television, and internet.
The UK government concluded that we do not lack information in health, but rather the information does not correlate with people and how they live their lives. Human behavior is the single most influential factor in morbidity and mortality. In order to organize a productive health campaign, one has to first look into the behavioral aspects of the specific problem. Tones and Tilford state that if we can understand factors that influence our behavior, “we will be in a better position to devise strategies and formulate methods that will achieve our health education goals (9).” A “theory” allows the health practitioner to look at the linkage between internal and external variables and the outcomes of an intervention. A practitioner should understand why and how people change their behaviors so that in the end, people for looking for health answers can have a set pathway to promote of take away that behavior. There are different models that inspect influence in the behavioral change process. The health practitioner will then choose a model according to what he or she wishes as an outcome. These theories allow for effective exchange between the sender and the receiver. A number of variables can influence this process such as beliefs, values, and even the message itself. Theory “can therefore help predict and explain behaviors, assist in the targeting of information and predict the effect that information will have (10). In some ways, a practitioner will find that a person cannot take on a certain behavior no matter how many resources they receive. Theory is not looked at as much when programs are implemented. An example of this would be a study about safe sex conducted by Abraham. They found that most safe sex pamphlets did not contain messages that targeted actions related with condom use. There was a gap, “between the evidence-based research and the practice in relation to designing safer sex promotion leaflets (10).”
Health promotion has made the practice of theory inconsistent. Some practitioners ignore theory and fail to use them as interventions. These practitioners may lack the expertise that is needed to use the theories and models that are available. Though many times they simple lack time, resources, and evidence. Communication based on a theoretical will get rid of problems in poor communication. In order to make a clear and concise health choice, Tones and Tilford argue that practitioners need a framework. This basis will help them build on better, cost-effective, and evidence based practice. Kobetz et al. say that one of the keys to effective communication is, “construction and strategic dissemination of finely tuned, theory-based health messages (10).
Models are formed using simplified theory, and they are commonly used to guide development in health promotion programs. These models can plan, implement and evaluate interventions. Elements in a model will be closely tied to behavior and our decision making process. Theories are important because they explain what influences our health and they suggest ways that we can change our behaviors to better our health. If a theory is sound and it takes into consideration all variables, then it is very logical and practical.
There are also problems that are associated with a theory-based approach. Theory sometimes “objectifies human experience and through this process deviates from the main health promotion ethos of holism and empowerment (11).” A person becomes a measurement and an analysis rather than a human being. Theory can also be inflexible, and it should apply to different contexts. It should guide behavior and not put in place a rigid path to follow. Also, designing a theory that can incorporate all variable and aspects of a problem is nearly impossible. Therefore, one should focus on two or three stages in a model to be practical. In many theories structural, political, and environmental factors are left out. Our behaviors are often influenced on society, and we should take those factors into consideration.
Five theoretical models have been selected to cover health communication. These models are most definitely not the only ones, but they are used most often and they incorporate a variety of approaches. For our class we have focused on three specific models. The theory of planned behavior was designed by Ajzen and Fishbein. This theory states that our behavior will reflect our desire to perform or not perform that certain behavior. The intention to perform the behavior is seen by three factors. One is our attitude toward the behavior. Our attitude is influenced as we see the pros and cons of the behavior and the risks and rewards. Another fact is the subjective norm which is our social pressure from others. Perceived behavioral control is our knowledge of our ability to keep or let go of this behavior. A person will likely perform the behavior if they have powerful intention, high behavioral control, support from those around them, and a positive attitude. All of those things added together construct a simpler model that adds up to a high perceived behavioral control. This model allows people to understand and predict behavior. It has been used most recently to promote exercise.
The second model one should look closely at is the health belief model. Becker developed this model using the early workings of Rosenstock. This model develops a pattern that looks at and influences a person’s behavior change. Most importantly, the model promotes this idea that a person can predict how effective their behavior change will be by their confidence and their perceived vulnerability. This vulnerability is defined by the risk of the behavior (perceived susceptibility) and the preceding consequence (severity). It is imperative that a person considers the pros and cons of performing a behavior. An example would be the recent H1N1 outbreak. Some may feel that they can contract the disease easily, while another may not believe they could get it at all. When a person decides to perform the health promoting or damaging behavior, it will be based, “on the outcome of this weighing up process (12).” Self-efficacy is added to the health belief model which is a person’s assuredness in their ability to perform or not perform the behavior. Four factors need to take place in this model for change to occur. A person must have an incentive, they need to fathom the amount of risk in keeping a bad behavior, and they have to believe that there is benefit in change. Lastly, and perhaps most importantly, the person must be confident! At the beginning of this model there is a ‘cue to action’ which makes a person want to change. For instance, if a woman finds out she is pregnant; she will wish to quit smoking. Or perhaps a friend expresses a need to see her friend quit drinking. Modifying factors can also be very important in considering behavioral change. These factors include demographics, socio-psychological variables, and structural variables. These influence the way a person sees disease severity, threats, and susceptibility. Age, gender, and peer pressure can also influence the change process. This model is used to predict both preventive health behaviors and sick role behaviors.
The health belief model excludes important factor such as friends, family, or social norms. The theory of planned belief may put too much emphasis on a person’s attitude to determine success- sometimes it cannot be predicted by attitudes. Professionals must look closely at which attitudes lead to a specific behavior. Both of these models may be better used by smaller or high risk populations. In non-Western cultures, behavioral intentions may be less important because, “these theories assume a degree of autonomy alongside the Western biomedical model (King-14).” Also, in non-Western populations, these theories may be, “less culturally sensitive (Lin et al. 14).”
The stages of change model (also called the transtheoretical model), is a circular model that was designed by Prochaska and Diclemente in 1983. This model concludes that people make behavioral changes throughout their entire life rather than at one specific time. During each stage, a person considers making a change. A circular model shows that, “people are at different levels of readiness to change and during the change process they move through a series of stages (Corcoran-15).” People move around the circle from pre-contemplation (not ready) to contemplation which is thinking of a change. Then they move to preparation as they get ready to change and after, they move into action or performing the change. Next, they maintain and continue the change or they move into relapse which is an abandoning of the change. A person can start at any stage which is why this particular model is interesting. An alternative model to the stages of change model is the perceived behavioral control model. This model uses communication and messages to help a person based on what stage they are at in the process. This model is not circular; it is a step by step process. The person moves from pre-knowledge, to knowledge, to approval, intention, practice, and finally to advocacy. A problem with this model could be that a person places themselves at a wrong stage.
The stage of change model is more likely to change short term behaviors then long term behaviors. Another problem with this model is that it assumes that the barriers between each stage will all be similar while this is rarely the case.
The communication persuasion model is mostly found in the field of advertising. It guides public health communication using mass media most times. The three factors that influence a person’s choice in this model are external factors (price), internal directive factors (beliefs), and internal dynamic factors (demographics). This model contains clear planning stages that a person can follow in order to get to a desired outcome. This model is criticized because it usually says that a person needs a specific number of steps while another person may need more steps.
If you wish to ask which model is more effective you will not be given an answer. All the models have potential if used in a practical and positive manor. In order to pick a specific model, a practitioner should ask him or herself a number of questions. Some of these questions include, “does [the model] include all relevant variables,” and, “does it make logical sense to use this model in this particular situation (Corcoran-22)?” Another question would be whether or not the model has been used for the same problem effectively before. Practitioners should also look at studies that illustrate its use in the problematic area. A person can also decide which behavioral model they want through looking at factors such as target group, funding, time, and the size of the project.
The theory of planned behavior has been used face-to-face, in groups, and in mass media. Example settings include schools, church, and universities. Example topics of intervention include physical activity, tobacco update and oral health. The health belief model is used face to face and in groups. Example settings include all group settings. Topics of intervention are preventative behaviors such as physical activity, sexual health, and vaccinations. The stages of change model can be used face-to-face, in groups, and though self help. Settings include all medical and group settings. Topics of intervention incorporate, but are not limited to alcohol or drug misuse and cancer screening.
Prior to an intervention, most models presume that there will be some pre-contact between the practitioner and the client. This way they can recognize which topics need to be addressed. Meeting with a client prior to the intervention can also help the practitioner make a “bottom up” approach. For instance, this is why most medical doctors ask a plethora of questions before they start treatment. Cohen et al. argues that all interventions can be divided into two main targets. Target one includes all interventions that request to change or manage and individual. Target two interventions inquire about the change of structure and are consequently not controlled by individuals. Individual advance interventions influence attitudes, beliefs, knowledge and skills. Those interventions at a structural level, “seek to change variables out of individual control (24).” An example of structural change would be a campaign that wishes to increase the number of condom machines at a university.
The theory of planned behavior is most practical if the practitioner can convene with the group in order to grow an idea about their major beliefs that could “hinder” their performance. Because this model includes the subjective norm, a person can focus on peer and family influences. The health belief model directs information at an individual that has an emotional appeal. These topics include drunk driving, domestic violence, and substance abuse. In this model, barriers can be more important than benefits. Barriers, “provide a focus for targeting communication (26).” An example would be the pain most women experience if they have a mammogram. Self-efficacy is important in determining sexual actions from this model, while perceived threat can establish dietary behavior. The stage of change model is very constructive when there is contact with the particular group which allows the practitioner to place each individual in a certain stage. Questions will be brief and asked at first which will include questions about activities and potential intentions. After this, the level of action will be determined that is proper to that stage. The level of action could be miniscule or quite large. During pre-contemplation, the practitioner should provide information and highlight benefits. During contemplation they should examine ways of overcoming barriers which include access and cost. Preparation would include support for problems and additional advice. Maintenance and action would consist of a practitioner being a positive advocate for the person’s change. When a person relapses they should be encouraged to try again.
The study of health communication couldn’t be more important as our health is very central to us and those who love us. These models cannot provide full explanations and variables of behavioral change, but they can identify, “potential factors of leverage points that may influence decisions that can help in the targeting and structuring of communication (28).” As science and the study of health evolve over time, so will these models.

Bibliography

Corcoran, Nova. "Theories and Models in Communication Health Messages." Communicating Health-
Strategies for Health Promotion. N.p.: Sage, n.d. 1-28. Rpt. in Health Communication. N.p.:
n.p., n.d. N. pag. Corcoran Health.pdf. Web. 7 Nov. 2009.

Organizational Communication- Personal

2009-10-18T10:21:00.000-07:00

A lot of my time has been spent working with other people, and I would not have had it any other way. Great things can be accomplished when people work together towards a common goal, although, I will not be shy about they fact that organizational communication does not always flow easily. People always seem to have different ideas and work ethics. One of the most positive organizations I have ever worked with was Big Sisters. I have already discussed this organization a small amount in my blog, but it is an all female community service organization. I had the opportunity to be co-president of this club which put me into a position of power. This became difficult sometimes because I wanted all the girls to love me, but I also wanted them to listen to me when I asked them to attend an event or simply be quiet. For downward communication, we used posters, emails, phone calls, face to face contact, etc. You name it- we did it. Because we had so many girls, we knew that some channels would not work and we had to create a sense of redundancy. We also knew how busy the girls were, so reminders for events were imperative. For upward communication, we asked the girls constantly what events they wanted to participate in. We also asked that they voted on big decisions that would change the way the club was run. We felt that this provided the girls with a sense of empowerment so they felt like it was a club that could easily cater to what made them happy. If something wasn’t working, we would meet as a board to discuss what could happen to change the problem. Board meetings were held every week, with two teacher sponsors, and although my co-president and I would facilitate these meetings, we would ask that the communication be a collaborative effort. Meetings with the board and all 100 girls were held every other week. At the meetings, we would play games so that the girls would feel more comfortable working together at events. Many times, we would also have food at the meetings as a reward for those who came. The board would stay after meetings and talk with the girls in order to form relationships with them so that we could “reduce barriers”. I wanted the girls to know that when they entered the organization they gained 107 friends. It was a difficult time, but it was without a doubt, one of the most wonderful times in my life. I would repeat the year in a heartbeat. The experience prepared me to work with others in any job.

Organizational Communication- Applied

2009-10-18T10:01:00.000-07:00

To help you better understand how organizational communication is used, I thought I would build an organization that prides itself on positive communication within its borders in order to perform its goal(s). I will call this specific organization “Peach Tea Cupcakes & Coffee”. This business will be located in a metropolitan area, and will cater to anyone with a sweet tooth and a need for great coffee. Its customers will range in age from 0-infinity, and the shop will pride itself on carrying a huge variety of products, not to mention those that can be picked by people who are on specific diets. As you can see, the employees will have their work cut out for them. This will be a, “work-hard-play-hard culture.”
In terms of the organization of power, there will be one owner, one manager, five bakers, three baristas, five people that take orders, three “cleaners”, and two people who run errands for the business. The owners will make decisions that change the image of the business; they will also provide the funds. The managers are second in power. They will “run” the business, and make sure everything goes smoothly. All other workers will be on the same level. The people that the owners employed were hired based on their ability to communicate, work in teams, problem solve, and think creatively. Communication will be used by the business to ask that things get done, to promote healthy relationships between workers, and to create a sense of unity and understanding. The managers and owners know that they must support their employees, and also promote individual empowerment. Because this is a smaller business, relationships will be very important. Supervisors will not be controlling, and no one will be “hovering” over the workers. Every morning, goals will be mapped out on a board for that day as a means of supervisory communication. For instance, the board could says that, that day they need to bake 500 cupcakes, deep clean the kitchen, develop new flavor ideas, and mark down certain products. Meetings and announcements will be placed on a board that all employees know about, and are asked to check daily as a means of “downward” communication. Emails will also be sent out for redundancy, and everyone will have each other’s phone number. For “upward communication”, all employees will meet once a week to discuss ideas, problems, financial issues, and communicative matters. This way, the employers receive feedback on how they are doing their jobs, and it mirrors how efficient the “downward” communication is. Workers will not be asked to do a horrible and stressful amount of work because the managers want them to focus on a greater quality of work. Workers will feel comfortable expressing their feelings and emotions because the managers and owner will promote it in their environment. Affective and cognitive trust will be enforced in order to maintain a sense of peace within the business. If employees are doing their job in a positive way, they will be rewarded sometimes with extra vacation days or raises.
If something is going wrong, all workers will meet immediately and communicate means for a change. Barriers between everyone at the business will be greatly reduced, and the idea of teamwork will increase. “Peach Tea Cupcakes & Coffee” will hopefully be a very fun and lucrative business. Though if it is not, that is what communication is for!

Organizational Communication- Definitional

2009-10-12T18:56:00.000-07:00

Humans spend a great deal of time working as parts of a whole. We tend to assume that organizational communication can only be most effectively used in a business field when in fact; it is used in sororities, fraternities, extra-curricular clubs, and schools. Organization communication is defined as, “human communication that occurs within the context of organizations.”(468) It is imperative that we realize that we live in a culture that involves a great amount of organizational communication.
As soon as we are hired for a position, we tend to pick up on verbal and non verbal cues that allude to the norms of the business. This can include clothing, timing, and the use of space. Deal and Kennedy state that there are four types of culture, and four leadership styles that are identified with each. A tough-guy-macho culture deals with high risk situations that involve matters of life or death (i.e. surgeons, police men, and firemen.) Organizations that define themselves as having a work-hard-play-hard culture are very focused on sales, and customer approval. If a company must put themselves in a high risk situation with slower feedback it is considered a bet-your-company culture. A process culture is purely concerned with evolvement of how something is completed. Because we have had such great changes in demographics, the assessment of good organizational communication is incredibly important.
Research has showed a huge parallel between communication and employee productivity. When asked how much time they spend communicating during a work day, many employees answered around 90 percent. In fact, when companies are hiring, the first thing they look for in a person is great, “communication and interpersonal skills”, followed by, “ability to work well in teams.”(472) Most companies understand the need for their employees to work well together, and they have significantly increased their teamwork. Other companies have also realized that works should feel empowered to make decisions, and are therefore given slightly more flexibility. Fisher defines empowerment as- (authority x resources x information and accountability). Communication seems to perform three specific functions in an organization. The first is the command function, which states that people will be given directions so that they may offer feedback. The second function of communication is the relation function. This function serves to use communication as a means to create relationships that will affect job performance. If people develop great relationships with those that they work with, their satisfaction with their job increases. The third function is called ambiguity management. Many times in large or small companies, there will be a lot of people working together who have different characteristics, ideas, and ways of completing tasks. In this way, communication gets everyone “on the same page.”
Anyone who serves as supervisor in an organization has an incredibly significant role. Everyone who works under them has so constantly know what is being asked of them. A supervisor should use a great deal of supportive communication. They should help an employee problem solve and develop new skills. They also should not be afraid to praise a job well done, and they should encourage their workers to speak up and make decisions. No employ wants a supervisor constantly breathing down their neck. For this reason, a supervisor should use non controlling communication. A non controlling supervisor doesn’t force employees to accomplish tasks in the same way the supervisor would. This communication allows employees to complete the task in his or her own way. Trust between a supervisor and an employee can affect productivity. Trusting someone is based on two components- one is rational (cognitive) and the other is emotional (effective). In a relationship with a supervisor, cognitive trust will be established if the person is professional, reliable, and they have a good track record. Affective trust occurs when people can share feelings and emotions. There two people can also talk freely and they can share their problems with each other. Five important qualities that help supervisors establish trust are behavioral consistency, behavioral integrity, sharing and delegation of control, communication, and lastly, demonstration of concern.
Second in importance to supervisory communication is the idea of downward communication. In downward communication, communication is, “initiated by the organization’s upper management and then filters downward through the chain of command.”(478) Employees will hear about news, tasks and other important information via many different channels. These channels include email, voice mail, department meetings, telephone calls, speeches, and memos. In many cases, workers are so busy, that the contacting them is very difficult. When it comes to keeping up with an excess of new material, people usually adapt to the information in seven different ways. Some people will omit the information all together which means they fail to handle the task. Other people can “error” which means they ignore the information. Those that prefer “queuing” tend to let the information build up. If a person ranks the task in importance they are usually “filtering”. And if an employee accomplishes the task, but not thoroughly, they are said to be doing an “approximation.” And lastly, if a person fails to handle the information at all, it is called an “escape”. The effectiveness of downward communication can be assessed in a number of ways. Most have found that when relaying information, a channel that combines oral and written messages is most effective. If a message is sent more than once using different channels it is considered redundancy. This redundancy helps busy people remember their tasks more. Though, if a person receives too many messages and memos they will likely become too busy to finish all their tasks. This is why the law of diminishing terms is important- it states that, “more is better, up to a point.”(480) In downward communication, the use of power usually comes into play. Researchers have identified five types of power. Three of the types (legitimate, reward, and coercive power) are used by the supervisor. Legitimate power is the power a person has simply by being in their position. Reward power is the ability to give rewards such as bonuses or time off. Coercive power is, “the ability to influence individuals by withholding rewards.”(282) The other two types of power are for personal means. Expert power gives a person the ability to influence another through his or her knowledge. A person will use referent power when they wish to be parallel with the “higher” powered source. The selective use of objective criteria, forming coalitions, and cooptation are as used as power tactics. A use of objective criteria gives people the ability to make only certain decisions based on what they need. Because a there is power in numbers, people have found it successful to influence others with the use of a coalition. A cooptation tactic is used to gain something by asking the person in higher power to become a partner.
Upward communication is defined as, “the process whereby the ideas, feelings, and perceptions of lower-level employees are communicated to those at higher levels in the organization.”(484) Upward communication has five important functions. It will provide management with information in order to make decisions. It will allow employees to relive the stress they deal with in the work situation. There will be a larger sense of participation. It will be used to determine how effective the company’s downward communication is, and it could suggest other better uses of downward communication. Some companies don’t use upward communication as much as they should. A boss should have a large upward receptivity which is, “the willingness to receive messages from subordinates.”(485) A type of upward communication is ingratiation which is an attempt made my employees, “increase their attractiveness in the eyes of others.”(286) There are three psychological barriers that can alter upward communication. If an employee believes that disclosing something will not allow them to complete a personal goal, they will not share the information. If a supervisor rewards the disclosure of feelings, employees will most likely feel better about sharing. Also, if a supervisor tends to be open, his employees will often share their feelings. For an employee to create change using downward communication they must package their ideas in a professional manor. This can include the use of statistics, graphs, charts, and visual aids. If there is a need for a specific changes, employees should get involved on committees, task forces, and teams. It is imperative though, to understand that change is a process and it will not come about in a second.
Horizontal communication is the messages relayed between people on the same level of an organization. The four functions of this type of communication are task coordination, problem solving, information sharing, and conflict resolution. The linking-pin function serves as a means to overlap organizations and groups in order communicate information upwards, downwards, and across the system. For this type of communication to be effective, barriers have to be reduced. Four different tactics have been used to reduce barriers. A good way to reduce barriers is to encourage each department to be successful in order to make the whole operation successful. If a company is highly interactive and is in frequent communication, information will be processed more easily. The rotation of people in positions will increase people’s empathy. If a company avoids a win-lose situation they will offer rewards to everyone, pool resources, and they will not put departments in competition. Organizations use team building activities to increase the relationships between employees.
Effective communication is imperative for change to occur within an organization. Organizational change can sometimes be difficult because of the need for cultural change. An evolving organization is seen as a web of relationships. Sometimes chaos can actually mean that an organization’s order is decreasing. Little things that occur within an organization can actually create huge problems.
Within an organization, many different informal channels are used. Rumors will usually develop, and three variables contribute to them- importance, ambiguity, and critical sense. For instance, rumors become larger if the information being said is not clear. As messages are passed from person to person they undergo three changes. If a message is leveled, certain details are left out. When the message is sharpened, it is exaggerated. If a person assimilates a message they will alter it in order to go along with their own ideas. People usually hear messages via the “grapevine.” Researchers have found this to be the fastest way that messages travel, and oddly, it is considered 80-90 percent effective. Alternatives to the grapevine are informal conversations, social activities, and companywide meetings. Information is mostly relayed via a person’s supervisor though.
As I learned more and more about organizational communication I realized how much I experience it in my life. Many times I have worked in a position as a subordinate, or as a leader. It is crucial that humans learn how to be most effective in the work place. Especially at this time of financial crisis, people must keep their jobs by being productive.
Bibliography:
Tubbs, Stewart, & Moss, Sylvia (1974). Human Communication. New York, New York: McGraw-Hill .

Nonverbal- Applied

2009-10-08T11:40:00.000-07:00

When it comes to nonverbal communication, I ask you- who does it better than Britney Spears? We hear about her antics in the tabloids every day, and she rarely speaks to why she acts in the crazy ways that she does. Last year, she was seen hitting a photographer with an umbrella. Obviously, she was a little bit angry to attack him in such a harsh manor. Instead of asking the man to stop shooting photos, she decided that it was time to communicate her hatred nonverbally. Shall I even talk about the infamous shaving of the head? Photos all around the world were posted which showed Britney in a barber shop, shaving her own head. At this point, most people are questioning her sanity. Many psychologists were asked about her behavior, and they responded that she was most likely nonverbally, “crying” for help. Another matter all together, is her clothing. She rocks fishnets, neon tops, jean skirts, and crazy bras like it is her job. Every time I see her in these outfits, I wonder how she wants to be defined. Is she simply trying to rebel, or does she actually like these clothes? One week she will be wearing something rather conservative, and people will sigh in relief because that seems to communicate that she is sane. When she wears something totally bizarre, the media runs headlines such as, “Britney is in dire need of help,” or, “she’s back in rehab.” In a way, I feel bad for her because she seems to communicate her insanity very well, and it covers up the fact that she could be a somewhat normal mother. Most of what we think about celebrities has been communicated to us nonverbally through pictures. It seems unfortunate to me that we believe everything we see, when we do not have the opportunity to speak the individuals. Another part of me thinks that Britney Spears communicates exactly what she wants us to know. Perhaps she is sad, lonely, and a tad bit crazy? From what I have seen, I might be drawn to that conclusion.

Personal- Nonverbal

2009-10-08T11:01:00.001-07:00

For my personal connection on non verbal communication I thought I would take you way back with me to seventh grade. At this point in my life I was sassy! I tended to be very verbally sparring when it came to matters of opinion. I was still a very kind person, but I got a great deal of satisfaction out of disagreeing with someone. As I grew up, I became more and more non confrontational. But anyways, during my seventh grade year I had a social studies teacher who I really did not like. She was young and rather moody all the time. Every day she would come in and ask us to do about 100 book questions. She would then lecture us on things that did not even connect to what we were reading. Our assignments were long and tedious. I began to despise social studies! After awhile, when she explained our assignment, I would roll my eyes and sigh loudly. I was far too scared to actually speak to her about my anger, so I would communicate my disgust unconsciously, and nonverbally. The problem was that I was a good student, and I always completed my assignments for her class, but she began to dislike me as much as I disliked her class. I had been sighing and rolling my eyes for so long, that it happened naturally and the thought did not even occur to me that she would view me as a “brat”. She began to call on me all the time to answer questions, and she would ask to speak to me after class about silly things. I would go home and cry, complaining to my mom that my teacher was treating me unfairly. Like any mother, my mom called this teacher up and asked her what I had done in order to be treated this way. The teacher, of course, replied that I frequently rolled my eyes and sighed in class which communicated the fact that I did not like her teaching method. When my mom told me this I immediately understood the teacher’s reasoning. I began to carefully watch my nonverbal communication so that the teacher knew I respected her. She was after all, an authority figure, and I had no right to conclude that she couldn’t do her job well. The next day we straightened things out, and from that day on, I started to enjoy her class. This teacher and I actually became friends, and I went to talk to her about things in the future. I think that many people have the tendency to communicate things unconsciously that they really would not want to communicate. Although I did not enjoy her class, I know that I would not want to convey my judgment as I respected her as a teacher.

Defintional- Nonverbal Communication

2009-10-06T19:46:00.000-07:00

In order to define non verbal communication we have to decipher between what is verbal, nonverbal, vocal and non vocal. If communication is verbal and vocal, speaking will occur. Non verbal and non vocal communication involves things such as hand placement, clothing, and gestures. All of these things can convey confidence in a person. An example on nonverbal/vocal communication would be a sigh or a groan because although I am not using words I am still communicating something. In verbal/non vocal communication, words are used but they are not spoken. An example of this would be a highway mileage sign.
It is incredibly important that we study non verbal communication because, “as much as 65 percent of all social meaning in face-to-face communication in conveyed through nonverbal cues.”(105) Non verbal cues are physical movements that get across a message. For example, when we first meet someone we usually smile. Non verbal cues are incredibly important when it comes to forming first impressions of people. Non verbal messages can replace, reinforce, and contradict verbal messages. An important part of non verbal communication is kinesics, which is the study of body movements. When a person’s verbal message contradicts their nonverbal message we call it a kinesic slip. As humans, we have to understand that everything we do, or everything we don’t do, communicates a message.
An important part of understanding nonverbal communication is interpreting what it means to have personal space. Personal space is defined as someone’s “personal bubble” that they carry with them wherever they go. A violation of personal space can result in a great amount of tension. Research on personal space focuses on the connection between “spatial arrangements…and human feelings and interaction.”(109) Everyone has a differing view of personal space, but it is important that we look for their cues so that we do not make them uncomfortable. Proxemics deals with the way humans communicate through their use of a space. An intimate distance is defined by being 0-18inches apart. This message is usually said in a whisper and is secret. Those with a personal distance are 1.5-4ft apart from each other, and they usually speak softly conveying personal “subject matter.” Social distance will be about 4-12ft, and a person’s voice will be at full volume and their message will be nonpersonal. And finally, public distance will be about 12-25 plus feet and this would include conveying public information to a group.
Throughout the world we will encounter high- and low- contact cultures. An important term when deciding this is co-culture which is a group of people that have distinctive characteristics that set them about from other members of a culture. In a high contact culture you will most likely find people who touch each other, stand closer to each other, make eye contact, and speak higher more often. An example of this would be they way that in Europe a common greeting includes being kissed on both cheeks. Those in a low contact culture will not make high contact and sit as closely as often. The United States is not defined as being high or low because we have such a mix of cultures.
Our orientation says a lot about our relationship with another person. Orientation is the, “angle of your body as you interact with another person.”(113) If you stand side to side with someone you will find that although you are closer to each other, you lack eye contact. If you stand in a vis-à-vis frame you actually stand facing the other person and you maintain eye contact. If we sit directly across someone at a rectangular table, we are usually conveying a sense of competition. The aspect of time is something that adds a great amount to the study of nonverbal communication. Chronemics is the study of how we communicate using time. A lot of times we convey something nonverbally long before we even speak. For example, if a person is running on the street in work appropriate clothes we can automatically assume that they are running late. It varies from culture to culture what is considered early or late. The United States has a reputation for moving very quickly. Time that is monochronic is linear and segmented. Monochronic people accomplish one task at a time and are very committed to their jobs. In polychronic time, many things are happening at once. Polychronic people tend to be distracted easily and they change their plans often.
The most important visual cue is facial expression. We use facial expression to, “identify a person’s social category membership,” to understand personality traits, to examine a person’s attention, to understand sincerity, and to comprehend someone’s thoughts or feelings. (118) Charles Darwin tried to discover whether or not facial expressions tend to be universal. From his studying he concluded that people express their emotions instinctively, and they are not learned. According to Matsumoto, the six universal facial expressions include disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, surprise, and anger. These expressions are also used by animals. Many cultures have different cultural display rules and mold people to express their emotions in a certain way. Thus, if we are members of a culture, we are better at deciphering someone’s emotions of the same culture. We also tend to mimic each other unconsciously, which is called the chameleon effect. The results of this effect include increased liking and affiliation. Being able to discern someone’s facial features says a great deal about their emotional intelligence.
A person who studies eye contact, eye movements, and pupil dilation is concerned with oculesics. A human spends, “30 to 60 percent of our time in eye contact with others.” (120) Rules about eye contact include the knowledge that if someone looks away from us, they are rejecting us. If they maintain our eye contact they are accepting our “invitation”. There is more mutual eye contact between people who are friends. Speakers who maintain eye contact are more, “believable and earnest.” If someone replaces short gazes for long gazes, a person can usually conclude that they view the relationship as more important than the task at hand. Eye contact functions to regulate the flow of communication, assess feedback, express feelings, and communicate the state of the relationship.
If we observe someone’s body movements we can learn a lot about how they feel. If a person is ready for a relationship they will display signs of courtship readiness. This includes the adjustment of a tie or the fixing of hair. Positioning tells us whether or not two people are attracted to each other. If two people sit face to face and lean forward we can conclude that they are eager to get to know each other. If the woman starts flirting with the male she is giving an action of appeal. Ekman concluded that our facial expression and eye contact conveys a specific emotion, and our body gives a person an idea of the depth of that emotion.
Humans are different than animals in the way that we posses great, “manual dexterity.” Our hand gestures rank second in our non verbal cues. A person who stands with their palms up is conveying that they are a nonthreatening individual. On the other hand, if a person stands with their palms down they are putting themselves in an authoritative position. In some cultures, if a person closes their palms and points their fingers it is considered offensive. Pointing is also something that many people consider offensive. A study also concluded that using hand gestures increases our thinking skills. People who are deaf can only use hand gestures to communicate which says a lot about how much we can convey through using them.
Haptics deals with how someone uses touch to communicate. Touch from others is essential for children to grow and for adults to be emotionally stable. Different relationships have different views on touch. Friends will usually hug whereas a couple will kiss. Touch varies in gender and culture. Our touch can increase, “self disclosure and compliant behavior.”(126)There are seven different types of touch researchers have found. Positive affect touches include, “touches of support…affection, physical attraction, and sexual interest.”(126) Playful aggression and affection is conveyed through playful touch. A control touch is used to ask for compliance. A greeting or goodbye is signaled using ritualistic touches. If the greeting or departure includes affection it is a hybrid touch. An example of a task related touch would be saying that you like a certain fabric while rubbing it. When we unintentionally brush someone it is an accidental touch. If a person has touch avoidance they have a negative attitude towards the use of touch, and it can affect, “proxemics and nonverbal communication.”(127)
Our physical appearance can say a lot about us as individuals. Objectics studies how we use physical objects to communicate nonverbally. How we present ourselves to others through clothing speak a great depth about our confidence. For instance, someone who wears sweats and never does their hair is most likely going to be viewed as someone who does not care about their physical appearance. On the other hand, someone who takes pride in themselves and dresses nicely understands that first impressions are formed based on appearance. What someone wears also tells us about their status. A person with a navy uniform is obviously in the navy, and a person wearing scrubs most likely works in a medical field. Objects are also things that convey messages easily. These objects can include displaying an American flag, or a pink ribbon for breast cancer. The norms of clothing, appearance, and objects differ greatly from culture to culture. In America, a lot of people tend to buy large houses and drive sports cars because they know it conveys their social class.
There is a huge difference between what is said and how it was said. Paralinguistics is, “the study of vocal phenomena.”(130) There are two components of paralinguistics- voice qualities (pitch, range, resonance, lip control, and articulation and control), and vocalizations such as laughing, sighing, or crying. If emotions are similar, our ability to identify them becomes less. If we speak at a low volume we become a source of interference for the listener. Researchers have found that aggressive people tend to speak loudly, whereas submissive people tend to speak quietly. In order for us to know whether our volume is appropriate we have to look for feedback from the listener. Rate of speech is defined as the, “number of words you utter within a specified time.”(131) The normal speaking rate is around 125-150 words per minute. Faster speech has been linked with feeling nervous or scared. Speaking rate differs from person to person, and some people have the ability to maintain control despite their emotions. Speaking rate differs from person to person, and some people have the ability to maintain control despite their emotions. Our rate of speech and number of pauses affects our fluency, or our ability to stay consistent. This is why it is important to refrain from using, “like, um, or er.” Our pitch is the high or low level of our voice. A speaker who varies their pitch is usually more captivating than a speaker who stays monotone. A person who is expressing something naturally will usually use a variety of pitch tones which conveys sincerity. Every person in the world has a different voice quality which makes us unique. Factors that affect this are the size and shape of our bodies. In our culture we do not like hoarseness or harshness. It is true that having, “an attractive voice is a distinct advantage.”(134) We can improve or vocal quality with training.
The study of nonverbal communication can be incredibly important in helping us to determine whether a person is lying or telling the truth. Research has found that humans are far better at detecting truth than they are at detecting deception. Even if we have a close relationship with someone, it doesn’t necessarily mean that we will have an easier time telling if they are deceiving us. People who lie tend to display more nonverbal cues that connect with deception. This might include a higher rate of speech or frequent pauses. Liars usually decrease their movements, which is a common misconception. If someone smiles and maintains eye contact it does not mean they are telling the truth either. When it comes to eyes, blinking and pupil dilation can tell us a lot about whether or not the individual is being truthful or not. A person who is deceiving will usually speak in a higher pitch with greater “vocal stress.” These two things are defined as leakage or signs of deception. If a speaker responds quickly, it can usually indicate that he or she is presenting a prepared lie. Someone who is telling the truth will usually take a moment to gather their thoughts. If a person’s voice is flat and deeper toned we can usually conclude that they are experiencing “over control” because they fear leakage. A technology that has been used for almost 15 years is voice stress analysis, and it can be very helpful in, “registering subtle emotion changes.”(137) Our feedback says a lot about whether we believe a person or not.
As we study non verbal communication, we not only become more fluent ourselves, but we also become more emotionally intelligent. Non verbal cues are all around us! All we have to do is sit back and take them in.

Bibliography:
Tubbs, Stewart, & Moss, Sylvia (1974). Human Communication. New York, New York: McGraw-Hill .

Gender Communication- Applied.

2009-09-25T12:55:00.000-07:00

At first, I struggled to find a piece of something current that would connect to gender communication because so many movies, articles, magazines, and works of art touch on our society’s view of what is masculine and what is feminine. Then, all of a sudden I had an epiphany- “High School Musical.” Yes, you might be laughing right now because I am connecting something so complex to the Disney channel, but it really does work! At the beginning of the movie we meet Trey. Trey is the star basketball player at his school, and is well liked by both boys and girls. He is awesome at basketball, not to mention ridiculously good looking. From birth, Trey’s dad wants him to play the beautiful American game of basketball. Like every father, Trey’s gives him positive reinforcement when he performs well. His father pretty much wants him to eat, breathe, sleep, and play the game so that he can go to college on scholarship. So, you are probably sitting here wondering what the problem is, right? I mean why wouldn’t Trey want to put all his efforts into something he is actually excellent at? Well, Trey also is great at acting and singing. When he tries out for the play, he gets the lead role. Of course, his leading lady is also beautiful and wonderful vocally. Trey then decides that he will balance basketball practice, play practice, and academics. This is a difficult feat considering each thing takes a great amount of time. Trey starts out doing this well, but then the basketball team learns he is in the school production, things go downhill. The entire basketball team makes fun of Trey because acting today is seen as something that is more feminine than masculine. Trey also receives a lot of grief from his dad, which is negative reinforcement. And although the play is very important to him, he gives it a second thought. Because it is our goal, usually as humans to be similar to our peers, being different in anyway can be troubling. Trey as an individual has so many characteristics that make him unique. Though, when people see him singing and acting on stage instead of playing basketball, they question his masculinity. Even most boys, who have seen the movie, consider Zach Efron to be highly feminine. I believe that this movie is a great example because it is focused towards teens. Disney knew that we have all developed stereotypes about what is masculine and what is feminine, and therefore, we could comprehend why is was difficult for him to be in the play.

Gender Communication- Personal

2009-09-24T21:46:00.001-07:00

Personal:
This past year I was president of an organization called “Big Sisters” at my school. Big Sisters is the largest female community service organization at my school. As I looked back at my experience, I realized that in order to fulfill my role, I had to possess both masculine and feminine qualities. This would make me androgynous. I understood that I needed to maintain order within the group, so I had to become a more assertive individual. When another girl would step into my “territory”, I had a higher need for dominance. I thoroughly enjoyed talking in front of a big group because I felt very powerful. After my experience as being president, I have found that I now crave responsibility and leadership. Both of these qualities have been defined by society to be more masculine. Though as a female, I also felt the need to be nurturing towards the girls when things became difficult. If one girl explained to me that her week had been filled with tests, I would often let her off the hook when it came to fulfilling her required hours. If someone approached me and seemed troubled, I picked up on it quickly and became kinder to that individual. If a problem arose, I would sometimes back away from the situation. Though looking back, I can remember many times that I became more argumentative because of my position. It was common for me to not implement rules because it caused confrontation, and I cared deeply about my relationships with the girls. During this time, I also had a Co-president, Sophie. She and I worked together in a very positive manner. Most of my actions were performed to better our relationship. At times, I would also take things into my own hands because I wanted to be seen as the better president. This is something that society expects from a man because they have a need for dominance. Our shirts for Big Sisters were hot pink, which further emphasized the fact that we were an all female organization. I can only conclude that I have been shaped socially because I too believe that males and females posses different qualities. I also believe though, that my performance was purely based on my individual qualities and not my feminine or masculine characteristics.

Gender Communication- Definitional

2009-09-24T21:16:00.000-07:00

Definitional:
In today’s society, we often believe that gender and sex are synonyms. This is not true at all, and it is indeed why so much thought has been put into gender communication. When a woman learns she is pregnant with a child, she usually wants to know whether it is a girl or a boy. If this woman hears she will have a bouncing baby girl, society has made it her duty to run out and buy five gallons of pink paint. She will assume that this little girl will have feminine characteristics. Though what if this little girl likes the color blue? Is that considered normal? The answer is yes- society has shaped our views of sex and gender so much that we expect specific things from them instead of simply considering them “human”.
Gender is something that is socially constructed meaning of masculine and feminine, and sex is something that is biological and genetic. The nature of gender is very complex, and three explanations have been proposed by scholars as things which shape its meaning: biological, social, and psychological.
Biological differences between men and woman explain what is on the surface of gender communication. Men and woman have different sexual organs, physical size, and anatomy. They also have differently structured brains. Research done by Kimura (2000) concluded that, “the right cortex is thicker in males’ brain then the left.”(5) This would mean that their brains are asymmetrical in the speech area which could lead to difficulty in communication. We do not have the evidence to support this claim though. It has also been proposed that females mature faster than men. For example, women tend to have a greater dexterity in things such as handwriting and wrist movement.
In order to look deeper into psychological theories we can look at the Freudian Identification Theory. Freud proposed that children will model their behavior after their same sex-parent in order to learn what society expects from their gender. Male development is centered around defensive identification because they fear power being taken from them. A woman develops from, “anaclitic identification.”(6) They do this because women have a fear of loss and love. This theory is sometimes looked upon poorly because it insinuates women are inferior. Another way of looking at it psychologically is through social learning theory. This theory says that we learn more about the roles of each gender from our significant others and parents. These roles are then “nailed in” using reinforcement. For example, when a little girl puts on makeup, she is told she looks beautiful by her mother. This reinforcement begins at birth. If we understand that girls need love and attention because they fear loss, we can also fathom why girls tend to be “cuddled” more. Because boys fear loss of power, they often get in trouble. Differences such as this increase as the children get older. Stereotypically, we believe that girls are more social and, “boys should be encouraged to move away from their mothers.”(9) If a boy tends to cling to his mother, society calls him a “momma’s boy.” At the age of two, boys and girls can identify the sex of an individual. At age three, the child knows its own sex. Children also learn a great deal about what society expects of them from other children at school. Girls are steered towards cheerleading and boys are taught football. Cognitive Development theory states that children really learn about what it means to be masculine and feminine during the age of five and six. Once children identify their own gender, they begin to like different things associated with their gender. This differs from social learning theory because it states that this development occurs at a certain time in the child’s life. Children actively seek out information that they think will make them similar to their peers. Social roles, “are a set of behavior patterns that define the expected behavior for individuals in a given position or status.” (12) The research of Talcott Parsons states that children learn about these roles from their families. For example, boys understand they cannot be like their feminine mothers so they tend to draw themselves away from them. Blumer and Mead conclude that we learn these roles from the expectations of our significant others. What society expects from men and woman can also vary from culture to culture. Carol Gilligan believes that males and females experience their social environment differently, and therefore develop differently in personality. Girls can automatically learn from their mothers, but boys must first detach themselves from their mothers. Girls gravitate towards the idea of attachment, so they usually shy from doing things that threaten their relationships with others. Because boys are taught to embrace separation, they often argue with others. Women define themselves through their ability to maintain healthy relationships with others which thus makes them kind and nurturing. Woman view separation to be unsafe and men prefer it. Ferguson believed that children develop based on their own priorities and social limits. A woman may want to be the CEO of a major company, so she will work hard to accomplish this task. Though because of what society believes, men will be thought to be better in this position.
There are various perspectives on gender identity. The dichotomous model states that there are basic differences between woman and men. Some see these differences as biological, and some believe they come from social conditioning. Although many differences have not been fully determined, there are some that have been well established. One of these differences is that girls have a greater verbal ability than boys. Girls are, “more responsive to tones, speech patterns, and vocal cues. Girls tend to speak and read earlier than boys.”(17) Male infants have better visual space abilities though. They also develop math skills earlier than girls. If a problem requires the solution to be verbal, girls tend to perform better. Women have better matching skills and a greater verbal fluency. A study also found boys to be more aggressive than girls. Instead of being aggressive, girls tend to handle their problems by being antisocial. Boys and girls find their self esteem in different places. Boys tend to connect themselves with characteristics such as drive, energy, and control. Girls like to associate themselves with words like generous and sensitive. Research also supports that, “girls and boys are equally proficient at all types of learning.”(19) It has been proven that girls often have a better achievement motivation under common circumstances. Research is still being done to prove whether or not girls are more compliant than boys and that boys are more active than girls. Also, it is still questionable whether or not girls are more, “sociable and nurturing than boys.” (19) One study did conclude that girls respond faster to the distress of another. Although many studies have been performed, their conclusions seem “superficial” if you look at the bigger picture.
In order to break down society’s influence on gender, strategies for change have been proposed. The concept of androgyny has been proposed to lessen the division between what is considered masculine or feminine. Sandra Bem brought about the concept of psychology androgyny which maintains that people can posses both masculine and feminine characteristics. An androgynous individual has great leadership qualities but is also sensitive to the needs of others. A person who is undifferentiated associates themselves with neither feminine nor masculine qualities. Androgyny allows a person more “flexibility” in their actions and it allows them to adapt properly to social situations. The concept is considered “healthier.” These individuals report, “better personal adjustment.”(21) As we observe interpersonal situations, our knowledge on gender orientation can be far more helpful than just knowing the sex of an individual. Complex social situations require both masculine and feminine characteristics.
A person’s culture and ethnicity also greatly influence their idea of masculine vs. feminine. It is true that what is expected of Caucasian American woman is entirely differently then what is expected from a Native American woman.
All these differences between men and woman shape our communication behavior. If we know these differences, we can break down stereotypes about what is masculine and what is feminine in order to see a person as an individual

Bibliography:
Stewart, Lea, Friedley, Sheryl, Stewart, Alan, & Cooper, Pamela (Fourth Addition). Gender and Communication.

Intrapersonal- Personal entry

2009-09-17T06:59:00.000-07:00

As I did some research on intrapersonal communication, I found myself pondering how I performed in my past relationships with family, friends, and the opposite sex. As my eyes moved over each conflict, my brain flashed through every problem I’ve had with communication. I thought back to my last relationship with a boy who I couldn’t seem to trust. I thought about my relationship with my mother and how the space between us has brought us closer. I sit here and smile as I recall the conversation I just had with my best friend. Time has made most of the relationships in my life grow stronger. I believe that time will teach you a great amount about someone. They say that everyone is good; you just have to wait for them to show you that true side of themselves. I have waited for people to teach me about the good they will bring to the table- sometimes they lay it out, and sometimes it never shines through. I have not been in enough relationships to teach anyone about what to do and what not to do. I can tell you that communication in a relationship is an art. It is an art that has to be practiced and failed at. It is an art that will let you make mistakes. Though most importantly, I have learned that every relationship needs to find a balance. I know I should be an open person, but also closed at times. I have found that it is incredibly important to be independent, but it can hurt you if you are too detached. The more relationships that we experience, the more we grow in our knowledge of how we should be treated. I always feel bad for the girls who jump into relationships quickly for a long period of time. I think it is imperative to date around so that you can compare each relationship in order to shape your thoughts on what you are looking for in a future partner. When looking for someone to date, I usually find a person who has similar values, is respectful, and open. I care a lot about my relationships with people, and it puts me in great distress when one of them is not going well. As I looked through all these sections I started to over analyze my past relationships. At times, you have to stop picking at the small things and look at the relationship as a whole. I believe a person should make you happy. When that person starts to make you feel unhappy, then you should step back and ponder your intrapersonal communication.

Intrapersonal Communication-Creative

2009-09-16T20:15:00.001-07:00

In the 2009 film, “He’s Just Not that Into You”, viewers get a chance to assess a number of different relationships. Because love is in fact blind, watching a relationship from the outside can bring you a refreshing perspective on dating. Throughout the movie, some relationships break, and some grow. The main character, Gigi, cannot seem to meet a great guy. Instead she waits for a phone call day in and day out from men she meets at a bar. The only problem is that she doesn’t know when to let go after the phone call never comes. Gigi’s work friend, Janine, seems to have the perfect marriage, until she hears that her husband has been cheating on her with a young yoga instructor. Janine’s husband is best friends with a man who cannot ask his girlfriend to marry him after they have been dating for seven years. I could go into this more and more, but it would get far too slippery and confusing. The thing that all the characters have in common is a problem with communication. Gigi is too clingy, and Janine wants comfort and commitment. This movie teaches us a lot about communication, and how it can badly affect our relationships with others. If the characters could step back, and assess the balance they have with their partners, they would determine that something is wrong. The way that these relationships fall apart and come together mirror the exact steps listed in chapter eight and nine of “Human Communication”. After Janine realizes that her marriage is in trouble internally, she seeks advice and help from others. When her husband feels the same, he confronts her about his affair. Both of them decide to stick it out and stay together, which ends up being a terrible idea. The marriage ends up failing, and Janine ends up kicking her husband out. Gigi also seems to have a problem with self-disclosure. She usually over shares, and ends up making herself vulnerable to the men she comes in contact with. She seems blind to the fact that good relationships take time and they are built on trust. Neil, who at first could not commit to marriage after seven years of dating Beth, ends up realizing that she is the person for him. Both Neil and Beth trust each other, and have spent enough time together that they have built a set of rules and norms. The movie proves to be an absorbing drama, and it is perfect for anyone who has experienced a tumultuous relationship.

Intrapersonal Communication- Definitional

2009-09-16T18:55:00.000-07:00

Definitional-
Two people in a relationship usually live by rules and norms developed and defined by their society. Norms are rules, implicit or explicit, about our behavior. From these norms, we develop expectations for how people will act. We also have roles, which are a set of norms that connect to a certain class in society. More specifically, we have enacted vs. expected roles. An expected role would be our pre conceived notion of a teacher, and an enacted role would be how that teacher portrays his or herself in the classroom. Interrole conflict occurs when a person is occupying two or more roles that entail contradictory expectations about a particular behavior. You experience an intrarole conflict when contradictory expectations are expected from one role.
A dialectical approach sees relationships in terms of opposing impulses that create tension between two people. This approach makes four main assumptions. One assumption is that contradictions are needed in relationships in order to promote change and create vitality. Second, “there is a dynamic tension between stability and change in all social systems.”(277) The third assumption is that we communicate to others, and we are reactive to the communication we receive in return. Lastly, we understand the dynamics of something only from experiencing other things that help us reflect on the situation. The three primary dialects that create tension are: autonomy vs. connection; certainty vs. uncertainty; and openness vs. closedness. In a relationship we want to feel a strong bond with someone, but we also want our own space, which creates the conflict between autonomy and connection. We look for excitement in a relationship, but we also look for predictability and trust which produces the conflict of certainty and uncertainty. It is important to keep information to ourselves, but it is all imperative that we be open with those in our lives. Sometimes the line in between open and closed can create tension. To assess the quality of an interpersonal relationship we use a few key concepts. One is that after two people have been together, their conversations should be about things other then what is happening around them and more based physiologically. Rules in a relationship that is healthy are usually developed by those two people rather than shaped by tradition. Rules are also defined by specific personal characteristics. In a good relationship, emphasis is placed on individual choices. A key term in this section is self disclosure. Self disclosure is the amount of information you make known about yourself intentionally. The Johari Window is very important when dealing with interpersonal communication. Box one is defined as open. This means that this information is known to you and others. An example of this would be that I am a girl with brown hair. Box two is blind. This information is known to others but not to yourself. This concept goes along with someone not believing they are a good dancer when others think they are. Box three is hidden. This information you know, but others do not. These consist of your personal secrets. The last box is unknown. This is yet to be discovered by anyone. Trust and reciprocity will help guide people around the window. When we trust someone, our information becomes open. We must reciprocate the trust. Internet dating provides a good example of self disclosure. We can reveal or conceal whatever we want about ourselves in order for someone to form a view of us. It is important to ask yourself whether or not self disclosure is appropriate in that particular relationship.
Normally when we hear the word intimacy we think of sexual intercourse. Intimacy though, is defined as closeness, and is measured in numerous ways. It is important in a healthy relationship to find balance between being together all the time and being independent. There are three different attachment types that Tubbs and Moss define. A secure attachment occurs when the two people are secure and comfortable with the relationship. An avoidant relationship happens when the bond between two people makes them uncomfortable. An anxious-ambivalent relationship is between people who have a complete fear of being abandoned. This type of person is probably deeply concerned with affiliation meaning they need to be around people most of their time.
Commitment is something that is horribly important in a relationship. Commitment is defined as, “the resolve to continue in a relationship indefinitely and to make the efforts necessary to ensure that it will continue.”(292) In our society, marriage is the ultimate fulfillment of commitment. Some are very scared of this because it restrains them for the rest of their lives. Living together can also be step that most people fear, even though it is important so that two people can learn to exist in the same place. In a balanced relationship, intimacy, love, passion, and decision/commitment are all in balance. This is highlighted in Sternberg’s Love Triangle. If the sides are unbalanced, the relationship is also unbalanced.
Love styles are something that define a relationship. Eros is a passionate love, and Ludus is a game playing love. Storge is a friendship based love and Pragma is a practical love. Mania is possessive love and Agape love is selfless.
Most commonly in a relationship, you can determine the dominance, status, and power. People with a strong need for dominance and high affiliation are more likely to direct. People with a low need for dominance and a low affiliation usually retreat from a relationship. Tubbs and Moss define status as, “the position of an individual in relation to another or others.”(300) Many people care about their status, and it puts a great strain on the relationship. In order for a person to have power, it must be given. This being said, if someone has power over you, you have let them. This is something in the relationship that you should have control over.
Power is discussed many times in terms of gender. There are four bases of gendered power. Force is asserted through physical force and emotional distress. Men usually lead in force because society sees them to be more powerful in that manner. Men also usually hold positions of power more often and for that they tend to have more resources. Usually, men also control ideology through their roles. Women are usually defined as warm, but because of this, men tend to have more power over their freedom creating unequal social obligations. Many experts agree that even marriages today are still unequal because of gender. To make a relationship equal, partners need to assess their equality and make sure that they are assertive in order to establish their needs. Being too assertive will become a huge problem. Sometimes when you express your own thoughts and feelings, you do so at the other person’s expense. The art of a relationship is balance. Two people will have a healthy relationship if they are constantly reflecting on their “equilibrium”.
In order to understand more about interpersonal communication, we must learn about relationships in detail. There are many bases in human attraction that help us get to know each other more. The first one is proximity, which is our “geographical closeness” to someone. (233) Another is similarity. Many scientists have found that we tend to be attracted to people who are similar to us. There are different things that make us draw ourselves away from someone. These things include knowing if someone likes you back, a change in self-esteem, anxiety, isolation, dating minimally, and online dating.
To define the context of a relationship we have to reflect on two things. The setting or the environment that we have grown up influences our characteristics thus creating similarities with people who also grew up in that environment. Our communication climate is also significant. A way of measuring our climate is through confirmation and disconfirmation. It is satisfying to receive confirmation from your partner and it can be incredibly damaging to receive no confirmation. In a relationship, a good partner is supportive and non defensive. When we feel threatened we immediately become defensive and it is usually not necessary. It is important to realize that the main ingredient for relationships to grow is time. Relationships are all different in the ways they share information. It is important to talk about a variety of topics with a great amount of depth. Trust is a fundamental part of relationships. If we feel lied to or deceived, we immediately close up, and the event can make trusting again difficult. People in relationships must find a balance between affection and control. Affection can be loving and passionate, but it can also be hostile.
Two people may become lifelong partners, but in order to do so they must first go through certain steps. The entire process is defined as, “coming together.” (249) The first step is initiating and making the firsts steps to create conversation. The second step is experimenting where people try to learn more about each other. The intensifying step marks the beginning or intimacy in the relationship. The integrating step happens when two people consider themselves to be a couple. The last step is bonding, which can take form in marriage. A couple comes apart using steps too. The differentiating step occurs when two people decide their relationship is to “clingy”. The circumscribing step refers to a decrease in time that a couple spends with each other. Stagnating happens when two people try to hold onto a relationship that is deteriorating. When a person is on the avoidance step they are trying to cope with the pain in the demise of the relationship. Terminating occurs at end and is the final stage.
As people study why relationships end they realize that it happens in phases. The first phase is intrapsychic. This stage is usually internal. The dyadic phase occurs when the two people in the relationship confront each other. When the couple starts seeking advice from other people they are in the social phase. In the grave dressing phase we usually turn to others so that we may justify that what we are doing is right. To maintain relationships, researchers have found that it helps to be positive, be open, assure the other person, spend time with common friends, and share tasks. It is also imperative to be supportive, a good sharer, and to spend time with each other.
Our relationships with family are usually the ones that matter most to us. Early on in a child’s life, a parent establishes gender roles in the family. It is important to view a family as a system so that you can classify the relationship networks. Nurturing families tend to be open systems. Every family has a set of rules that each family member knows and follows. Families with adolescents usually have an increase in social conflict. Teenagers are going through intense changes and their relationships usually change as a part of that.
Bibliography:
Tubbs, Stewart, & Moss, Sylvia (1974). Human Communication. New York, New York: McGraw-Hill .

The History of Communication- Self Reflection

2009-09-13T12:31:00.000-07:00

Reflection:
The study of communication and rhetoric has influenced my life greatly. What was discovered in those centuries long ago has provided me with a fundamental base for survival. If I did not know how to effectively communicate and advocate for what is important to me I would not be able to donate my thoughts in order to be a citizen of the world. Each year that I studied English, communication, and rhetoric I attained building blocks to be a good speaker. In first grade I began to read! This is when I realized that I could gather all this knowledge through books, news papers, encyclopedias, etc. Once I would read something interesting I would immediately want to present it to someone. Sometimes I would find that I really did not know enough on the subject matter to teach it to someone. This would make me want to learn more and more. As I began to develop by grammar skills I learned to present my ideas in a polished manor that made what I was saying more credible. Through essay writing I learned how to organize my ideas in order to present them clearly. In debate classes I learned about the three types of oratory and the three appeals. Even when I was speaking outside of debate class I would use the three appeals to persuade someone to share my opinion. And I am in fact a very non confrontational person, but knowing the three appeals comes in very handy during verbal disagreements. I had studied Plato and Aristotle before this class, but I had no idea all the ways that they contributed to communication. I think it is also important to acknowledge that many different forms of government were developed just so that we could communicate better. Democracy allows us to have a say in the people that ultimately make the decisions for us.
Every single day I try to effectively communicate with others so that my ideas and opinions can be presented and sometimes used to persuade. This can be very exhausting day in and day out, but I find that I become more eloquent the more I practice. The art of communication is something that happens over a great deal of time. It has taken us centuries to learn the basics. I think it is imperative to look at how communication started and how it has grown. Sometimes when I speak I get so wrapped up in what I am blabbering about that I forget my purpose. I will now use “the five canons” of effective communication when presenting a speech. Sometimes we need to turn back to the fundamental ideas of simply gaining knowledge and organizing before we present our thoughts.

History of Communiation- Relation to the Present

2009-09-13T11:51:00.000-07:00

Connecting with the Present:

I have attached a video of Randy Pausch’s “Last Lecture” above. This relates to the history of communication because Pausch’s speech incorporates all the effective tools of rhetoric. The purpose of this speech is to one, relay all that he has learned about attaining his childhood dreams to those sitting in the audience at Carnegie Mellon and two, to record something that his children will be able to view when he is not there. His speech is dynamic, exciting, and interactive. He uses the three appeals Aristotle defined many times throughout his presentation. He establishes his credibility or ethos by proving to us that he has in fact accomplished his childhood dreams through pictures, word documents such as his published article in the encyclopedia, and huge stuffed animals. More simply, he has already built his ethos by being a well liked and brilliant computer science professor at Carnegie Mellon University. The steps that he takes to achieve his dreams are logical. He does not do anything out of the ordinary and he is given the same opportunities as everyone else. The difference in his logic is that when he is turned down he tries again. He connects with his audience on an emotional level because he encourages them to be all that they can be because life is too short to wait for things to come. After listening to his speech I feel inspired which is the kind of feedback he wants- it means his persuasion has worked.
Another way that Pausch effectively communicates with us is through his body language. He uses large hand gestures and powerful facial expressions to show us that he is passionate about what he is talking about. He comes prepared to speak with a PowerPoint and props. We know as we listen to his to his words that he has spent a long time generating and organizing this speech. Though most importantly, he has spent years and years accumulating the knowledge and reason that is imperative to even give the speech. He also greatly considers the thoughts and attitudes of his audience. Most of the people who are watching him are in there twenties and thirties. He acknowledges this by making the speech whimsical and gearing it towards those who are fascinated with computer science. And although the steps he takes to achieve his dreams are fairly complex, the point he is trying to make is not. This makes his speech easy to comprehend by his children. Pausch’s speech is so engrossing that at times you cannot take your eyes off him as he becomes excited about the topics his is presenting. Without knowing how to effectively demonstrate his thoughts, his speech would have just been a bulk of superfluous jargon. Using all that he has attained about communication and rhetoric, he presents a beautiful speech. If Aristotle, Plato, Gorgias, or Cicero had never existed, how would “The Last Lecture” teach anything? Over thousands of years the study of communication and rhetoric has been polished so that those to wish to make a statement can do so powerfully and eloquently.

The History of Communication- Definitional

2009-09-13T10:02:00.000-07:00

Definitional:
Effective communication began to take shape in the fifth century B.C. when the Greeks created the adversary system. This system was a way of working through problems with others without using physical violence. More specifically, the adversary system of government had a guilty until proven innocent philosophy. The Athenians believed that most everything in their lives was predetermined, so this new way of thinking was hard to accept. This system promoted change in the way that it pushed the citizens to resist what they found untrue, and fight for their rights.
If you could not communicate in an effective manor chances were you would lose most of your verbal battles. This is where sophists came into play. Sophists were the first teachers of communication. They specialized in the studies of rhetoric, communication, and persuasion. A few famous sophists include: Arête, Hippias, Protagoras, Gorgias, Aristotle, and Plato. Arête focused on what the audience brought to the table- attitude and knowledge- in order to form a convincing and direct dialogue. Hippias taught his students that it was imperative to be broadly knowledgeable about their topic so that they could expand or defend their thoughts. Protagoras coined the concept that two sides can have a valid argument, but one side will have a stronger argument. Gorgias wanted people to know that public speaking can excite or “move” a crowd. These men molded our thoughts on communication greatly, but Plato and Aristotle heightened the idea of communication by placing all pre conceived notions of this study together. Plato believed that individuals would uncover fact, and that truth was an ideal for academic scholarship. Aristotle was an empiricist and affirmed that we can make certain claims as long as they are tied to universal principles. Unlike Plato, Aristotle believed that rhetoric could be used positively, but he also accepted that it could be used negatively too. Sophists during this time tended to gain poor reputations because words can be used to deceive.
Aristotle taught his students three broad ideas about oratory and persuasion. Most importantly though, he wanted people to understand that communication has a purpose; we do not speak unless we have something to say. He said that there are three types of oratory: forensics (looking at the past to advocate justice), deliberative (the influence of future action), and epideictic (celebratory). He also contended that persuasion is accomplished through the three appeals of ethos (credibility), logos (logic), and pathos (emotion). To be an effective communicator we must generate ideas, organize them, use language appropriate to the occasion, be knowledgeable on the topic, and deliver the speech in a convincing way. As you can see, the ideas above were created and broadened over time emphasizing the idea that competent communication has been polished over hundreds of years.
The concept of rhetoric in Egypt and Rome was like gold. Not many people wanted to literally learn and practice the art of communication but rather they just wanted to house the knowledge. Alexander the Great created a library to house all the communication expertise. When the library of Alexandria was raided by the Christian Crusaders it started a chain reaction. People would raid other countries libraries so that they could attain this knowledge and translate the ideas so that their people would understand them. This is a very interesting and troubling thought because it created conflict, but without it, communication would not have been changed and evolved so abundantly. The Romans realized that rhetoric could be used to construct or change laws and that is why the country is known for organization and discipline. Three important people during this time period were Quintilian, Aros and Cicero. Aros did not just house knowledge of communication, but he actually studied it further and expanded our analysis of the audience. Cicero contrived that oratory had three objectives- to instruct, to please, and to win over. Quintilian, “developed a detailed theory of rhetoric” into what is now called the “five canons or rhetoric”. (17) As the Roman Catholic Church became the center of knowledge in the fourth and fifth century, people started to spiritually develop their relationship with God. As Europe was declining, the Moors became the ones that possessed a considerable knowledge, “that Christian Europeans lacked.” (19) When Johann Gutenberg created a printing press, books became attainable to all people. This allowed Renaissance scholars to write books in their native languages and print them so that they were widely available.
During the enlightenment period, Francis Bacon performed a scientific study of gestures which started the concept of nonverbal communication. John Locke also famously called language, “the great instrument, the Tye of society” at the time. (24)George Campbell, Hugh Blair, and Richard Whately made significant contributions to the study of rhetoric which would eventually lead to the development of communication programs in American Universities. Elocution was developed after democracy and the rhetoric of England and the new world. Thomas Sheridan taught the lower class how to present their opinions so that they could promote their own justice to the higher class. The lower class would need to develop strong forms of reason, deliver their thoughts sincerely, and present a nice argument.
All of these contributions seem rather overwhelming when broken down by time period. Without all of these additions, our society would be socially inept. As the need to learn to communicate effectively grows, schools will hire more educators and develop departments to, “better conduct research and teach a growing student population.” (24)
Bibliography
Dues, Michael, & Brown, Mary (2004). Boxing Plato's Shadow- An Introduction to the Study of Human Communication. New York, New York: McGraw-Hill.

Model of Communication

2009-09-03T22:41:00.000-07:00

As you can see in picture one, rain drops are falling from the sky to the ground. Each rain drop can represent something like an idea, thought, or an opinion. Picture two depicts the pond receiving the rain. Thus the pond represents a person listening to another. In picture three, the pond expands because it "accepts" the raindrops. This can be feedback because an effective process has occurred. Image four shows a sunshine (aka a stimulant) that forces the raindrops out of the pond and back into the atmosphere. I believe that thoughts taken in should be freely given off to form this constant cycle of knowledge. A weather pattern seemed to most effectively represent a model of communication because it is in constant motion. Words, and nonverbal cues are given off and taken in at every moment. The person who listens to someone speak should walk away feeling like they gained something from the conversation. Hopefully, whatever they have gained can be distributed to others.